Mumbai and Sao Paulo are similar cities in the way they developed and the issues they currently face. These two cities oceans apart are parallel in a multitude of ways. They are among the ten largest mega cities in the world and still developing at high rates. These cities are expected to continue to grow in the foreseeable future. Therefore the deficiencies they now experience will become even more pressing problems. Both cities currently face obstacles such as squatter settlements, inadequate water and sanitation services. These issues and similar ones will grow unless drastic measures are made.
Mumbai, India
City Statistics:
Mumbai is the capital of the state of Maharashtra within India. Mumbai is located on an archipelago of seven islands off the west coast of India at 18.96° N 72.82° E. This city is the fifth most populous agglomeration in the world and clustered along with its satellite townships forms the world’s most heavily populated conurbation. Census estimated its metropolitan population for 2004 to be 17.5 million residents. The population density is 28,834 people per kilometer squared. Mumbai accounts for approximately 1.2% of India’s total population and for about 12% of the state of Maharashtra. Mumbai is only 24 kilometers long and about 4 kilometers wide at its broadest point with an area of 437.71 kilometers. ( Census India)
Though India has been referred to as Hindustan, people of many different religions reside there. Hindus comprise the majority of Mumbai’s population at 68%, followed by Muslims at 17%, and Christians and Buddhists at 4% each. The remaining 7% are followers of Parsi, Jain, Sikh and Jewish religions. (Kamdar, 1997) Mumbai has a large polyglot population but the most common language spoken on the streets is a colloquial form of Hindi, better known as “Bambaiya Hindi.” It is a blend of Hindi, Marathi, and Indian English. While Marathi is the official language of the state of Maharashtra, it is not as widely spoken as Hindi. Other languages spoken in Mumbai include English, Gujarati, Bengali, Urdu, Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Punjabi, Konkani, Nepali and Kannada.
The Term Paper on Information About States In India
Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India. It is the second most populous state after Uttar Pradesh and third largest state by area in India. Maharashtra is the wealthiest state in India, contributing 15% of the country’s industrial output and 13.3% of its GDP (2006–2007 figures). Maharashtra is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Gujarat and the Union territory of Dadra and ...
The total literacy rate in Mumbai is 77%, which is considerably higher than India’s national average. ( Kamdar, 1997) This can be an indicator of the advances Mumbai is making as a developing city. Mumbai’s explosive economic market has attracted a variety of people from within India and abroad which has resulted in its annual growth rate of 4.2%. ( Census India)
History:
The first foreign intrusion into Mumbai occurred in 1534 by the Portuguese. The islands of Mumbai were taken from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. They were then ceded to Charles II of England as dowry for Catherine Braganza in 1661. Catherine in turn leased it to the British East India Company in 1668. (Banerjee, 1996) Mumbai was quickly referred to as a presidency town mainly because of its ideal location for British commerce. The deep harbor in Mumbai served as a promising dock and headquarters to the East India Company.
In 1817 the city underwent reshaping to become one large amalgamated mass. The city structure and geography was altered by large engineering projects that merged seven islands into one single mass of around 434 squared kilometers by 1845. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 increased India’s accessibility to the international market. (Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority)
In the thirty years to follow Mumbai transformed into an urban center. Improvements in infrastructure and construction attracted rural populations to Mumbai. After independence from the British, Mumbai gained a new title as the capital of Maharashtra in 1960. (Banerjee, 1996) Towards the end of the 1970’s Mumbai experienced a large influx of migrants, increasing the population and causing a boom in construction. Today Mumbai deals with its increasing population and lack of land by creating space vertically, erecting sky scrapers.
The Term Paper on Gateway Of India
The Gateway of India is a monument built during the British Raj in Mumbay (formerly Bombay), India. It is located on the waterfront in the Apollo Bunder area, South Mumbai and overlooks the Arabian Sea. The structure is a basalt arch, 26 metres (85 feet) high. It lies at the end of Chhatrapati Shivaji Marg at the water’s edge in the harbor of Bombay. It was a crude jetty used by the fishing ...
The largest metropolis in South Asia, Mumbai is also coined India’s financial center and commercial capital. Not only does Mumbai’s port handle over 25 % of India’s total foreign trade but it also is the largest port on the entire Subcontinent. (Banerjee, 1996) In addition, Mumbai houses headquarters of important financial institutions, such as the Reserve Bank of India and Bombay Stock Exchange.
Mumbai’s role in India is also defined by its cultural significance. “Bollywood” India’s film industry is the largest movie industry in the world. This movie industry releases roughly 700 films annually. The movies produced by Bollywood are targeted not only to the general public of India but also to the non residential Indians, abroad. A thorough description of Mumbai’s role in India includes Mumbai’s financial sector and its cultural sector, Bollywood.
Housing Issue/ Slums:
Mumbai, as an urban center has always experienced housing problems, mainly slums. Slums never underwent any planning, infrastructure construction or implementation of facilities such as water, sewage and drainage. The number of slums has drastically risen since the 1950’s, mainly due to the fact that Mumbai has continued to grow in industry and population since its independence. In addition, housing in Mumbai is scarce and expensive. In 1976, the Government passed the Urban Land Act which aimed to enlarge the area on which middle and lower class housing was to be built, however, money allotted for the act has since been used to build more upper class housing. (Banerjee, 1996) This housing situation blatantly exposes the continuing indifference, neglect and lack of funding capacity of the government in providing housing and other urban amenities to the poorest sections of the society. This in turn has only worsened the slum problem.
In present day Mumbai an estimated 55 % of its residents are slum dwellers. (Dohem, 2005) Slum inhabitants constantly have to deal with issues such as constant migration, lack of water, no sewage or solid waste facilities, lack of public transit, pollution and housing shortages. Infant mortality is as high as it is in rural India where there are no amenities.
The Term Paper on Introduction to Textile Industry in India
The term 'Textile' is a Latin word originated from the word 'texere' which means 'to weave'. Textile refers to a flexible material comprising of a network of natural or artificial fibers, known as yarn. Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting and pressing fibers together. History of Textile The history of textile is almost as old as that of human civilization and as time ...
Mumbai is home to the largest slum in South Asia, the Dharavi slum with over 500,000 occupants. Like other slum sites, Dharavi has been victim to demolition attacks by the government. These land spaces are used for numerous things, such as construction of new buildings, roadways, and beautification projects. For example Subhashnagar, Wadala was a slum located near the Don Bosco School for about 15 years. Parts of the settlement were demolished on May 10, 1993. The slum dwellers were not given notice prior to the demolition. The police had even resorted to physical violence and several persons suffered injuries. The site from which they were evicted from near the Don Bosco School is now a garden. (Dohem, 2005)
The city faces many challenging obstacles in dealing with slums. Slum dwellers are neglected and often mistreated. There is a lack of attention by the government to address the problem. The government has taken steps in resolving the problem of slums by engaging in violent evictions; sometimes at the cost of lives. The problem is not limited to erasing slums, but also to addressing lower class citizens and their concerns.
Water Issue:
The crisis is the lack of access to safe water supply to millions of people as a result of inadequate water management and environmental degradation. Millions of people in India’s most populous state are drinking water contaminated with traces of cadmium, fluoride, arsenic, nitrates, and lead. Arsenic contamination of underground water is a serious problem in India. Prolonged exposure to arsenic can cause kidney, liver, intestinal, neurological, cardiovascular, and respiratory disorders.
Drinking water in urban areas is supplied half by surface water and half by groundwater. Most of India’s industry is located near rivers to use surface water. water pollution has been identified as a major problem in Mumbai, by both local authorities such as the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA), and by the World Bank. The World Bank explains that Mumbai’s water is polluted because “about 75 percent of all sewage is untreated and discharged to local waterways and coastal waters, causing extensive environmental hazard.” In attempts to control the polluted water that is being dispelled into the water, Mumbai’s local government required effluent treatment plants to be installed in industries, also requiring for water quality monitoring stations for major factories discharging water into the water. The Maharashtra Pollution Control Board overseas the water pollution control systems and implements guidelines for the industries polluting the water. However this board, as well as its guidelines does not run effectively.
The Essay on Mumbai Slums
An earthquake occurs when there is a sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust that causes seismic waves. Earthquakes are typically caused by opening of geological faults. They are however also caused by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear experiments. The effects of earthquakes are many and far reaching. Earthquakes cause shaking and ground ruptures which result in ...
Sanitation Issue:
One of the biggest health hazards facing Mumbai residents is sanitation, especially slum dwellers. Slums lack systems for disposing excretion, sewage and solid wastes. Toilets, when available, are in such poor condition that people refuse to use them. The outcome is people forced to use open public spaces which can lead to health hazards and environmental degradation for the city. In a survey of Santosh Nagar, only 1.5 % of households have their own toilets. Of the Santosh Nagar residents 69 % use public toilets and 29.5 % use open spaces. The Mumbai Municipal Corporation has tried to construct public toilets in the slums. As of 1993, about 9,700 of public toilets existed in Mumbai. Of these toilets, 80% of them were not in working condition. Disregarding whether they were functioning or not, they still did not meet 50% of the total demand. Apart from the lack of available toilets those that are available are not connected to the main sewer system. (Kamdar, 1997)
The city addresses this problem by creating public toilet blocks in highly populated areas. This supply driven approach neglects to continue up keep of these toilet blocks. This lack of sufficient maintenance of public toilet blocks is mainly due high costs and a huge public finance burden. Although the Municipal Corporation employs cleaners and maintenance staff, but the personnel are never enough.
Transportation Issue:
Mumbai faces a transport crisis characterized by levels of congestion, noise pollution, traffic fatalities and results in high levels of air pollution. The rapid continual growth of Mumbai’s urban population has put strains on its transportation systems. In addition to Mumbai’s limited and outdated transport infrastructure, sharply rising motor vehicle ownership and use, as well as deteriorating bus services pose major problems for the city’s movement. Public transportation is overcrowded, undependable, slow and even sometimes dangerous. Mumbai has India’s most extensive suburban railway network, carrying over 5 million passengers a day. ( Acharya, 2000)These rail lines peak hour trains must carry more than twice their maximum design capacity. On peak hour trains, many passengers are forced to lean out of doors and windows or to ride between train cars. Buses are also disadvantaged with congested conditions. Not only are buses filled past capacity, but they must navigate through narrow streets, having to compete with animal drawn carts, minivans, cars, taxis, auto rickshaws, cyclists, and pedestrians. (Chhabra, 2000)
The Term Paper on Mexico City Water Air Pollution
Mexico City Site and Situation: Mexico City is the largest city in Mexico. It is located in the south central part of the country in the Dis uto Federal (Federal District). Mexico City is situated in the Valley of Mexico, a highland basin at an elevation of about 2350 m and is bounded by mountains on three sides. Much of Mexico City is built on the former bed of Lake Texcoco which is spongy and ...
The transport sector of Mumbai creates another problem: it is the major contributor to air pollution for the city. Vehicles alone account for 70 % of Mumbai’s air pollution. Mumbai’s high concentration of pollution is not due to the absence of an environmental regime, but instead to a lack of environmental enforcement at the local level. For example, the Indian Government has tried to mitigate the situation by mandating national conversion of all buses, auto rickshaws and taxis to a safer fuel (CNG).
(Chhabra, 2000)This sudden shift led to massive disruptions as well as corruption to avoid compliance. More improvement can result from a shirt to newer vehicles with less polluting engines, but that is not affordable for all vehicle owners. Outlawing older and more polluting vehicles could have negative consequences for those who reply on them for mobility as well as employment.
Sao Paulo, Brazil
City Statistics:
Sao Paulo is the biggest urban agglomeration in Brazil and second in the world. Situated 760 meters above sea level, the city of Sao Paulo, in the state of Sao Paulo, has an area of approximately 1,575 kilometers squared. Located at 25 ° S and 46° E, this city is approximately three fifths urban and two fifths rural. These two areas combined are known as Grande Sao Paulo, which has the largest population in the Southern Hemisphere with a total of 17 million people. Its annual growth rate is 3.1%. The city of Sao Paulo has a population of approximately 10.9 million, which makes it the largest city in Brazil and the third largest city of the world in terms population. (MegaCity TaskForce)
The Essay on Aspects Of City Life Crime
Aspects of City Life - Crime. Different angles can be taken with regards to crime in the city, and further to this, the main topic can be broken down into smaller areas. I have conducted two types of research; Primary - Interviews etc. Secondary - Named Sources. The question of crime and how it affects a city is perhaps best put to those people that have either lived in a city all their lives ( ...
Sao Paulo possesses significant ethnic minority communities, including substantial Japanese, Italian, Arab and Lebanese neighborhoods. In Sao Paulo, three million people are direct or indirect descendants of Portugual, and another three million people have direct or indirect Afrian ancestry. Sao Paulo has the largest number of Japanese outside Japan. ( Osava, 2004) Other ethnic and religious groups that have sustantial populations in Sao Paulo include Armenians, Bolivians, Chinese, Lithuanians, and Koreans.
History :
On January 25, 1554 two Jesuit priests, Jose de Anchieta and Manoel da Nobrega established a mission along the Tiete River, to conver the Tupi Guarani Indians. Sao Paulo officially became a city in 1711 and experienced a boom in the late 19th century due to coffee cultivation. The expansion of the city in the north and the northwest and the Santos harbor are both optimal situations for trade. Most of the country’s exports were shipped from the port of Santos. (Wilhelm, 2004) After 1881, with the end of slavery, waves of immigrants from Italy, Japan and other countries arrived in Sao Paulo. This first wave of immigrants came to work on coffee plantations. In the 20th century as industrial development increased, immigrants came to Sao Paulo to work at factories. ( Tolosa, 2003) This period of industrialisation and urbanization made Sao Paulo the major industrial city in the country. Sao Paulo surpassed Rio de Janeiro as the principal industrial center of Brazil. Sao Paulo continued to grow rapidly due to foreign factory investments. This constant economic development is the reason for rapid urban growth in Sao Paulo. Sao Paulo is the economic center of Brazil.
Housing Issue:
The rapid growth of Sao Paulo’s population has led to a severe shortage of housing. Millions of people are forced to construct their own homes from scrap materials such as wood, iron and metals. These slums are referred to as favelas in Brazil. The conditions associated with favelas are very poor, sometimes services such as sanitation, water or electricity are not provided. Favelas are most commonly located on the edge of the city, mainly because this is the only available land to build on within the city limits. Secondly, employment is sought at the industries that are located at the city edge. In order to gain access to infrastructure, connections are made to water and electricity while sewage is either piped into local streams, or dumped in open ditches. Likewise, garbage is dumped into creeks, ditches and roadsides. ().
The Brazilian government has addressed the problems of illegal settlements since they first began in the 1930’s. Sao Paulo did not see much success until the 1980’s. Significant infrastructure improvements were made to the urban periphery; however the cost of development made Brazil the largest borrower from the World Bank for the purpose of urban development (United Nations Human Settlements Programme).
In 1995, Sao Paulo began a redevelopment project based on a successful project in Singapore. (United Nations Human Settlements Programme).
The goal was to create 140,000 apartments for favela residents by removing the favela houses and erecting new high density apartments in their place. The planning process failed in part due to possibility of high rent and that it lacked participation from favela organizations to ensure that the apartments would meet the needs of those that would be using them. Many favela residents owned and raised livestock, and apartment style living was not conducive to their work and life choices.
Water Issue:
Sao Paulo’s population has doubled in the last 20 years, putting the city’s natural water resources under pressure. Particularly the Guarapiranga and Billings reservoirs feel the pressure; they provide 40 % of the Sao Paulo Metropolitan Area’s water. Population in the Guarapiranga Basin is growing at 7 % per year and has reached 580,000, two thirds of which are located near the reservoir. About 130,000 live in favelas (along the reservoir) without basic services. (Osava, 2004) Waster water, sewage and solid waste from these areas are discharged directly into the reservoir and the main polluting source of the water is domestic effluent. This accounts for two thirds of contamination, as 90% of the sewage is not treated. The reservoir has significant amount of toxic substances, mostly high levels of lead and mercury.
Tainted water and water shortages are familiar realities to the residents near the reservoir. In 1993 an estimated 300 residents of Pirituba in northern Sao Paulo blocked a highway for six hours to protest a water shortage. Approximately 1,000 families were without water for three days. (Osava, 2004)Many people resorted to using water from contaminated wells. The health of those that use this reservoir’s water is at risk. However it is not due solely to untreated water, and favela residents but also to mining activities that take place in the area. Increased mining activities near the waterways and discharge of harmful substances also threaten the lives of the residents of Sao Paulo. Some environmental legislation already exists to combat this occurrence, however it is loosely implemented. According to the Department of Nacional de Produca Mineral all minining operations are required to obtain an environmental license prior to the granting of mineral rights by the department. (Wilhelm, 2004)The challenges faced by this water crisis are the rapid population growth and the lack of control over the mining industry.
Pollution Issue:
One of Sao Paulo’s biggest challenges is the improvement of traffic conditions. The city’s public transport system is insufficient. The majority of people (73 %) take busses as their main means of transportation. The busses are mostly overcrowded, old and contribute to the air pollution of the city. There are approximately 3 million private cars on the road that contribute to the traffic congestion of the city. In peak hours the total length of traffic congestion exceeds 100 kilometers. ( Tolosa, 2003)
As a consequence of the immense volume of private traffic and industries Sao Paulo suffers from serious air pollution. In order to control the air pollution several measures have been taken. Industries that produce the highest level of pollutants (such as the petrol refineries and heavy industries) have been moved out of Sao Paulo to Curbato. Also since 1981 more environmental friendly cars are circulating which in turn led to a reduction of pollution. (Tolosa, 2003) In 1997 there were restrictions placed on the days in which you could drive your car, according to the registration plate of the car. (Tolosa, 2003) This program required motorists to leave their vehicles at home one day a week. However these restrictions are often not respected and the number of cars is still growing.
Crime and Violence:
As in other large metropolitan areas, crime and delinquency in Sao Paulo represents a social problem that is insufficiently documented. An intensification of the problem in recent years has led to reorganization and modernization of the police system. To confront the rising crime rate, the police of Sao Paulo have taken an active step by stopping citizens for questioning. However, this leads to frequent complaints by citizens of abusive treatment from police. ( Almando, 2002) Within Sao Paulo, police corruption and civilian violence both contribute to the rising crime rate. The crime in Sao Paulo can also be attributed to physical conditions, such as substandard streets that impair prompt access by police to the scenes of crimes as well as the absence of sufficient street lighting. In recent years organized crime, with its sophistication and use of weapons has escalated.
A reaction by communities to the growing violence is the creation of enclosed residential compounds for the wealthy. These “closed condominiums” are protected by guards and security fences. This new development in the urban periphery has transformed residential areas that had a sense of commonality and community into a community of separateness due to possible danger. ( Henkin, 1999)
Crime exceeds fences and locked doors, kidnapping and murder for ransom is also on the increase. Reported kidnappings doubled annually in the mid-90s. Kidnappings of celebrities, athletes and their family members for large sums of ransom are reported in the evening news. This crisis is affecting the lives of the rich as well as the poor. The materially lower class citizens suffer from kidnapping and murders not for ransom, instead for their organs.
The government is having a hard time catching these criminals due to the high influx of these crimes and the lack of a legitimate police force.
Compare and Contrast:
The developments of Mumbai and Sao Paulo are increasingly similar. Both cities have harbors that gave them an advantage in trade. These harbors influenced the British and Portuguese into colonizing Mumbai and Sao Paulo, respectively. Their harbors served as their portal into international trade ways. Their position, near the water is also why they both grew to be and remain economic centers of their countries.
These two developing mega cities experienced rapid population growth as a result of urban migration. Mumbai’s migration is primarily rural to urban relocation. However, Sao Paulo differs in that it encompasses an international population along with rural to urban migration trends. Rural to urban migration in developing cities is the result of people moving in response to better economic opportunities in the urban areas or to the lack of prospects in their home or village. The scale and direction of people’s movements coincide well with the changes in the spatial location of economic opportunities. Both cities experienced and are experiencing a rapid economic expansion and large shifts in employment patterns from agricultural sector to industrial, service and information activities. The international market has been an important part of the shift of sectors.
These cities are the generators of national wealth. The contribution of the large cities to the national income is disproportionately large. However, they suffer from several problems accompanying economic development, specifically high density unplanned settlements, slums, traffic pollution, shortages in housing and services, pollution, environmental decay, mounting poverty and crime.
Both cities underwent unregulated physical expansion of their cities’. This lack of planned urban development has serious social and environmental consequences, including the segregation of low income groups in the worst located areas. Informal or illegal settlements in both cities are concentrated in sites subject to flooding, or on hillsides and even near railroad tracks. The surrounding areas of these settlements experience problems of overcrowding and infrastructure shortages.
Solutions/ Suggestions:
Housing is a challenge both cities are faced with. Efforts in improving housing conditions in both cities have failed due to lack of community participation. By increasing people’s participation the government is recognizing the diversity of needs and priorities within the low income population. Inadequate poverty reduction policies and the lack of effective policies on housing and urban problems contribute to the existence of slums.
A possible solution to the problems of slums is to upgrade existing slums. This can be effective if these upgrades are based on community participation through a formalized process requiring contributions from slum dwellers. A secondary step local governments can take in hopes of solving the problem of settlements is to encourage slum dwellers to organize and undertake responsibility of their slum reconstruction. The government can serve as a facilitator by ensuring financial accountability.
The issue of poor water quality and lack of clean water jeopardizes the health of the urban population in both cities. These issues can be curbed if the government implements guidelines to factories. Factories often are required to have their discharge pass through water treatment facilities. However, either these factories do not comply or have low standards for water quality. The government needs to pressure factories to act in accordance with their rules and regulations for the health of the city. Another setback to water quality is human waste excreted into or near waterways. The government needs to improve public toilets and increase the locations for them. Once this is done they should run a campaign to promote use of these utilities. By educating people on the health risks associated with improper disposal it may lessen the occurrence.
Traffic congestion and pollution go hand in hand. Traffic congestion in both cities can be combated by wider roads and designated areas for certain vehicles. A separate land for the following is needed vehicles, animal drawn carts and bicycles. This may seem extensive but it will lessen traffic accidents. Also improving public transportation so that it runs effectively and is safer will increase commuter use. To reduce car usage restricted parking areas and increasing parking fees, giving buses greater priority in mixed traffic and higher fuel taxes may help. A complimentary issue to traffic is pollution. Pollution can be combated by encouraging car pooling, and by enforcing laws to change the type of fuel cars take. These solutions may seem too ambitious but are possible through much advertising and evaluation of the current transportation system.
Crime and violence is an issue mentioned in regards to Sao Paulo, however both cities are plagued with high rates of it. Police efforts are needed to lower the crime rate in these cities. However police corruption serves as an obstacle in cleaning the streets. There needs to be a system to monitor the use of police style to enforce laws and to provide services to the public. The board that overlooks this system should be part of another precincts’ community, so as to reduce chances of corruption. By having a dependable police force combating crime should be more efficient. In order to reduce civilian crime educating the youth is important. Educating the youth in any aspect and encouraging participation in youth groups reduces the chances of them participating in crimes. Public participation and massive campaigns reaching large parts of the community are the best ways to combat any issue.