Types of soils
Soils in India : Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust. Soil is the medium in which plants grow and thus it supports the lives on earth.
How soils are formed?
Soil is the thin layer of loose mixture of small rock parcks are also worn away by the agents of erosion like river, wind, sea and glacier. The sediments and tiny rock particles are then deposited by agents of erosion. The accumulation of such sediments over the age’s forms soil shed their leaves which decay to form the topmost layer of soil called “humus”.
India is primarily an agricultural country. The success of agriculture depends upon the fertility of soil. The soils of India are classified into the following main groups depending upon the rock cover and climatic conditions. The most two important factors that determine the types of soil found in India are: 1 the climate 2 the topography.
The soils of India on basis of their formation are divided in the following two board categories.
1Resedual soil
2Transported soil
The major soil groups are –
Black soil
Black soils are mainly found over the Deccan lava tract (Deccan trap) including Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. These soils are found in river valley of Narmada. Tapi, Godavari and Krishna. These soils have been formed due to the weathering of the lava rocks. This is also known as rich in lime. Iron, magnesia and alumina but lack in the phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter.
The Term Paper on Different Types of Soils in India
... grown in these soils. 2. Red soils These soils are derived from granite, gneiss and other metamorphic rocks. These soils are formed under well drained ... and iron and aluminium oxides remains in the top layers. Laterites are usually shallow and gravelly at higher lands, ... dry & wet periods. 4. Alluvial soils Alluvial soils, cover the largest area in India (approximately 7 lakh km2) and these ...
It is formed by the weathering of igneous rocks and the India, extensive deposits of black soil are found in the Deccan plateau which includes parts of Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil nadu. In India the upper parts of Godavari and Krishna, the north western part of Deccan plateau, black soil is very deep.
Black soil is-
– Clayey, deep and Impermeable
– They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried
– During dry season, these soils develop wide cracks.
– Rich in lime and iron, magnesia and alumina
– Also contain potash
– Known as black cotton soils.
– Dark in colour, suitable for cotton cultivation is residual soils, i.e. they are formed at the place of their origin over the underlying rocks.
– Are formed in situ, i.e. formed where they are found. Therefore, they are essentially formed by weathering of Deccan trap.
– Spread over an area of 5.4 sq. km., i.e. 16.6% of the total land area of the country.
Characteristics:
– Fine textured and clayey in nature.
– Has high quality of lime, iron, magnesium, and Generally poor percentage of phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter.
– Black in colour as it is formed from weathered lava rocks.
– Soil’s colour also varies from black to chestnut brown.
– Very clayey and therefore highly retentive of water. Because of high clay content, these soils expand when wet and become difficult to plough.
– Soil is very fertile in most of places.
– Poor in nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and organic matter and rich in potash and lime.
– Needs irrigation support for cultivation.
– Contains soluble salts in small quantities.
– Cultivation is done with the help of fertilizers
– Suited for dry farming as it does not require much moisture.
Crops:
– Cotton cultivationSuitable for growing cereals, rice, wheat, jowar, oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane.
The Essay on Soil Pollution 2
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers (soil horizons) of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics.[1] Soil is composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and environmental processes that include weathering and erosion. Soil differs from its ...
– Their moisture-retentiveness makes them suitable for dry farming.
Black soil (summary)
Black soil is made from lava – solidified rocks and is also called ‘black cotton soil’ or ‘regur soil’. The black colour of regur soil is due to its iron content, deriving from pultonic lava materials. Mainly found in the Deccan regions which the major part of Maharastra, Gujrat and parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Cotton is most important crop.
Red soil
These soils are found in Chota Nagpur Plateau, Telangana, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Periphery areas of Deccan Plateau. These soils have been formed due to decomposing of underlying igneous rocks under heavy rainfall. These are suitable for cultivation millets, pulses. Lin – seed, tobacco etc. These soils are poor in lime, nitrogen and humus.
Characteristics:
Red soils are reddish in colour due to the presence of iron. This type of soil is found in south India as well as in the chota Nagpur pleatu. Formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
– Parent rocks are acid granites and gneisses.
– Occupy an wide area of about 3.5 lake sq. km- 10.6% of the total land area of the country.
– These are transported type soils.
– Coarsest in the upper section of the valley, medium in the middle and finest in the delta region.
– Are mostly light to dark colour depending on new or alluvium.
– Rich in potash and become fertile with the proper use of fertilizers and irrigation.
– Deficient in nitrogen, lime, magnesia, humus and phosphate
– Found mainly on the pleatu region of peninsular India, the malwa pleatu.
– It covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh South- eastern Maharastra, eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh, and parts of Orissa, Jharkhand and bundelkhand.
– They practically encircle the entire black soil region on all sides.
– Red due to its very high iron content.
– Colour varies from red to brown, chocolate and yellow.
– Are porous, friable in nature.
The Essay on Soil Profile
Soil forms the surface layer of the earths crust. The development of soil is a constructive process in where disintegrated material resulted from weathering of rocks and minerals get converted into the soil body. Soil profile is the vertical section of soil showing the various layers from the surface to the unaffected parent material. The soil contains three main layers. The surface soil or that ...
– Loose and aerated.
– Contains soluble salts in small quantities.
Laterite soil
Laterite= brick (Latin word) these soils are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. Thus its formation takes place strictly under monsoon conditions. Residual soil formed by leaching in areas of heavy rain. Leaching is a process in which the nutrients get percolated down below the soil due to heavy rainfall: thus leaving the top soil in fertile. Also called DESILICATION. Laterite soils are found in elevated areas which receive very high rainfall as a result, top soil gets washed away. This process is called leaching. The soil therefore loses its fertility to a great extent. It covers an area of about 2.4 lakh sq km. these soils are found in the north- eastern state of Meghalaya in India.
•Is of coarse texture, soft and friable.
• Is red due to the presence of iron oxide which is formed by leaching. The soluble plant foods like potash are removed from the top soil leaving alumina and oxide.
Is a porus soil, silica is removed from it by chemical action. Is poor in lime and magnesium, and deficient in nitrogen.
Laterite soil is formed by weathering of lateritic rocks, low temperature and heavy rainfall with alternating dry and wet periods.
TWO TYPES: upland laterites and lowland laterites
Upland laterite- are formed over hills and uplands. From they were transported by steams towards lowlands. Such transported soils are known as lowland laterites. Laterite soil does not retain moisture and hence is not fertile. It suits only special crops like Tapioca, cashew nuts, etc. it is acidic in nature as alkalis are leached.
Laterite soils are found on the highland areas of the pleatu. These are found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and hilly regions of Assam, Rajmahal hills and chottanagpur pleatu. These are shallow, acidic and less fertile soils. These soils are poor in lime but rich in iron. So these are suitable for plantation of crops like tea, rubber, coffee etc. since lo fertility because of high acidity and low moisture retention, manuring and other activities are required to make them them suitable for growing crops such as ragi, rice and sugarcane. Paddy is grown on lower elevations whereas tea, cinchona, rubber, and coffee are grown on higher elevations. It is also suitable for building purpose.
The Essay on Soil Sampling
These instructions are for taking a soil sample from a yard, pasture, or any other piece of land. The purpose of a soil sample is to determine the pH of the soil. These instructions give a simple step by step procedure that anyone can do. Anyone who is trying to grow something can use a soil sample to help them get the best growth for whatever they are planting. The reason for needing to read ...
Alluvial soils Alluvial soil (Riverine soil) it covers about 40% of land area of the country. They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams. Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, they extend into the deposition of fine sediments and slit by the rivers along their banks. In India, alluvial soils are mostly found in the great northern plains, the coastal plains and river deltas. In peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys. These soils originate from the transported alluvium brought by the rivers. They can be divided into two types:
1. Young khaddar soils: these are newer alluvium of sandy, pale brown composition, found in lower areas of valley bottom which are flooded almost every year. It is non porous, clayey and loamy.
2. Old bhangar soils: these consist of older alluvium of clayey composition and are of dark in colour. They are coarse in nature; contain kankar (lime), pebbles, and gravels. They are found 30 m above fiood level of the rivers. They represent the ‘reverine alluvium’ brought down by Sutluj, Yamuna, Ghagra and other rivers of indo- gangatic plains. These soils are the most widespread soils covering an area of 8 lakh sq. km from Punjab to Assam. These are found in the river basin, flood plains and coastal areas. These soils are deep soils rich in potash but poor in nitrogen. These soils are covering 22.16 % of total area of India. The major rivers which are contributing in the formation of alluvial soils are: Ganga river, Brahmaputra River, sutluj river, Mahanadi river, Godavari river, Krishna river alluvial soils through differ greatly in texture, are very fertile on whole. They:
• respond well to irrigation and manuring.
The Essay on Taiga Soil
The taiga is the largest land biome on earth, it covers some of Canada, Alaska, Europe, Asia, and most of Russia. The word "taiga" is Russian for the forest, but the word is used in the U.S. as well as Canada and some parts of Europe. The winters are cold, and the summers are wet and sometimes warm. The purpose of this paper is to describe the soil in the taiga. First of all, the soil is nutrient ...
• Good for both rabi and kharif crops.
• Suitable for weath, sugarcane, rice, cotton and oilseeds.
• in delta region, they are ideal for jute cultivation.
AREA/ STATES
Alluvial soils of two types: deltaic coastal and inland alluvial. Found in uttaranchal, U.P., Bihar, W.Bengal, Punjab, Haryana & Assam. In south, found in plains and deltas in Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and Tamil Nadu.
Useful for agriculture since it is fertile.
Soil is rich in potash and lime but poor in nitrogen and humus.
Important crops- wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton and jute. It is very suitable for jute.
SUMMARY- ALLUVIAL SOIL
Alluvial soils are most extensive soil- most part it is formed due to deposition of the rivers brought down the upper course of the river. Ti is found on the combined plain land of the Indus and the Ganga- brahmaputra rivers which includes Punjab, Haryana, U.P., Bihar and west Bengal.
The coastal alluvium is found in coastal sides of peninsular India. Called ‘Riverine soils’- it is originally found in river basins. Rice and wheat- 2 main crops being cultivated in the alluvial soil.
Deltaic alluvium is more fertile then the coastal alluvium because as the coastal alluvium being mixed with sands, has been lacked the meager power of water- preserving than its counter parts. The deltaic alluvium has been lacked the meargre power of water- preserving than its counter parts. The deltaic alluvium has been riched with newly river- deposited alluvial has riched with newly river- deposited alluvial components.
The economics of India, Pakisthan and Bangladesh are dependent on alluvial soils. The India, Bangladesh & Pakisthan, i.e. combinedly the Indian sub-continent have been sectorishing the agriculture into its primary occupation since a considerable period; and occupation since a considerable period; and occasionally the accumulated river basin of Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra, one of the rich basin of fertile alluvial soil of the world, has occupied the region’s foremost areas. Thus, this type of agro friendly soil inhabitance consequently favours the economic up surging among the total wards.
Inland alluvium and coastal alluvium
The Essay on Augustus Morgan Logic Mathematics Mathematical
Augustus De Morgan was an English mathematician, logician, and bibliographer. He was born in June 1806 at Madura, Madras presidency, India and educated at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1823. Augustus De Morgan had passed away on March 18, 1871, in London. Augustus was recognized as far superior in mathematical ability to any other person there, but his refusal to commit to studying resulted in his ...
Inland alluvium soil found in Indus river plains and the Ganga- Bramaputra river plains whereas coastal alluvium is found on the coastal regions of pennsular India inland alluvial soil is found in Punjab, Haryana, U.P., Bihar, W.Bengal and coastal alluvium is found in Gujarath plains
Other soils: The other soils in the catory of the Indian soils are as follows:
DESERT SOIL
These soils cover 2 lakh sq. km areas in dry areas of Rajasthan, Gujrat, Punjab, and Haryana. These coarse soils are suitable for cultivation of jower, bajara, cotton etc.
Saline and alkaline soils: these soils are found in the dry and marshy areas. These are locally known as, Rehu, Kallar. The accumulation of salts makes these soils infertile.
MOUNTAIN SOILS:
Mountain soils are found in, as the name suggests, in mountains regions. They are quite prone to soil erosion as a result of the top soil getting washed way due to the steep slopes of the mountains after a period of heavy rainfall.
These soils are mostly thin and infertile. These include peat, meadow and forest hill soils.
The major characteristics of this soil are:
• They are rich in humus
• are coarse and infertile. They are deficient in potash, phosphorus and
Lime.
• Tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits. The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and uttaranchal, Assam, Sikkim as well as higher reaches of Arunachal Pradesh have mountain soil.
ARID AND DESERT SOILS
Large part of arid and semi-arid region of Rajasthan and adjoining area of Punjab and Haryana desert soils are found in arid regions which receive very little rainfall.
• Low rainfall and high temperature are reasons for the formation of this soil.
• Having less than 50 cm rainfall. He high temperature adds to the loss Of any remaining moisture in the soil. The soil is therefore sandy in Nature. Thar Desert in Rajasthan has sandy soil.
• covers an area of about 1.4 lakh sq km
• originated frm the mechanical disintegration of the ground rock of by Deposition of the wind
• desert soil contains 90%of sand and 5%of clay. It contains rich Percentage of soluble salts, but lack in organic matter are porus and course.
• They respond well to irrigation and manuring, especially phosphate and nitrate.- it can improve the soil fertility as it is seen in the case of Indra Gandhi canal in Rajasthan.
• Only suitable for drought resistance crops like millets, barley, Cotton, maize and pulses.
SALINE AND ALKALINE SOILS
Soils with high proportion of salts and alkalis are called saline and alkaline soils. They are formed due to accumulation of tidal water in adjoining coasts where drainage is poor. They are found in drier parts of Bihar, Rajasthan, U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Maharastra. These soils contain many salts like sodium, magnesium and calcium which make them infertile and render unfit for agriculture.
MARSHY SOIL
Found in continuously water- logged areas, or marshy areas especially in the coastal regions near the sea or near the deltas.
•it covers about 56,000 sq km.
•they are formed as a result of water-logging
•it contains iron and varying amount of decayed organic matter.
•found in southern parts of Siwaliks, Jammu and Kashmir, U.P.
Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan FRS, better known as Srinivasa Iyenger Ramanujan was an Indian mathematician and self taught genius who, with almost no formal training in pure mathematics, made substantial contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, indefinite series and continued fractions.
Born and raised in Erode, Tamil Nadu, India, Ramunjan first encountered formal mathematics at age 10. He demonstrated a natural ability, and was given books on advanced trigonometry by S L Lonely. He mastered them by age 13, and even discovered theorems of his own. He demonstrated unusual mathematical skill at school, winning accolades and awards. By 17, Ramanujan conducted his own mathematical research on Bernoulli numbers and the Euler-Mascheroni constant. He received a scholarship to study at Government College in Kumbakonam, but lost it when he failed his non-mathematical coursework. He joined another college to pursue independent mathematical research, working as a clerk in the Accountant-General’s office at Madras Port Trust Office to support himself. In 1912-1913, he sent samples of his theorem to three academics at the University of Cambridge. Only G.H.Hardy recognized the brilliance of his work, subsequently inviting Ramanujan to visit and work with him at Cambridge. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, dying of illness, malnutrion and possibly liver infection in 1920 at the age of 32.
During his lifetime, Ramanujan independently compiled nearly 3900 results. Although small number of these results were actually false and some were already known most of his claims have now been proven correct. He stated results that were both original and highly unconvential, such as the Ramanujan prime and the Ramanujan theta function, and these have inspired a vast amount of further research. However, some of his major discoveries have been rather slow to enter the mathematical mainstream. Recently, Ramanujan’s formulae have found applications in crystallography and string theory. The Ramanujan Journal, an international publication, was launched to publish work in all areas of mathematics influenced by his work.
Early life
Ramanujan was born on 22 December 1887 in Erode, Tamil Nadu, India, at the residence of his maternal grandparents. His father, K.Srinivasa Iyenger worked as a clerk in a sari shop and hailed from the district of Thanjavur. His mother, Komalatammal or komal ammal (ammal in Tamil is equivalent of madam in English) was a housewife and also a singer at a local temple. The family homein the town of Kumbakonam. The family home is now a museum. When Ramanujan was a year and a half old, his mother gave birth to a son named Sadagopan, who died less than three months later. In December 1889, Ramanujan had smallpox and recovered, unlike thousands in the Thanjavur district who succumbed to the disease that year. He moved with his mother to her parents house in Kanchipuram, near Madras. In November 1891, and again in 1894, his mother gave birth, but both children died before their first birthdays.
On 1 October 1892, Ramanujan was moved to a Telugu medium school. After his maternal grandfather lost his job as a court official in Kanchipuram and he was enrolled in the Kangayan primary school. After his paternal grandfather died, he was sent back to maternal grandparents, who were now living in madras, and he tried to avoid going to school. His family enlisted a local constable to make sure he attended school. Within six months, ramanujan was back in Kumbakonam.
Since Ramanujan’s father was at work most of the day, his mother took care of him as a child. He had a close relationship with her. From her, he learned about tradition and puranas. He learned to sing religious songs, to attend pujas at the temple and particular eating habits- all of Brahmin culture. At the Kangayan primary school, ramanujan performed well. Just before the age of 10, in November 1897, he passed his primary examination in English, Tamil, geography and arithmetic. With his scores, he finished first in the district. That year, ramanujan entered town higher secondary school where he encountered formal mathematics for the first time.
By age 11, he had exhausted the mathematical knowledge of two college students who were lodgers at his home. He was later lent a book on advanced trigonometry written by S.L.loney. he completely mastered this book by the age of 13 and discovered sophisticated theorems on his own. By 14, he was receiving merit certificates and academic awards which continued throughout his school career and also assisted the school in the logistics of assigning its 1200 students (each with their own needs) to its 35-odd teachers. He completed mathematical exams in half the allotted time, and showed a familiarity with infinite series. When he was 16, Ramanujan came across the book a synopsis of elementary results in pure and applied mathematics by George S. Carr. This book was a collection of 500 theorems, and it introduced Ramanujan to the world of mathematics. The next year, he had independently developed and investigated the Bernoulli numbers and had calculated Euler’s constant up to 15 decimal places. His peers of the time commented that they” rarely understood him”and”stood in respectful awe” of him.
When he graduated from towen high in 1904, Ramanujan was awarded the K.Ranganatha Rao prize for mathematics by the school’s headmaster, Krishnaswami iyer. Iyer introduced Ramanujan as an outstanding student who deserved scores higher than the maximum possible marks. He received a scholarship to study at India’. However, Ramanujan was so intent on studing mathematics that he could not focus on any other subjects and failed most of them, losing his scholarship in the process. In august 1905, he ran away from home, heading towards Visakhapatnam. He later enrolled at Pachaiyappa’s college in Madras. He again excelled in mathematics, but performed poorly in other subjects such as physiology. Ramanujan failed his fine arts degree exam in December 1906 and again a year later. Without a degree, he left collage and continued to pursue independent research in mathematics. At this point in his life, he lived in extreme poverty and was often near the point of starvation.
Adulthood in India
On July 1909, Ramanujan was to a nine-year old bride, Janaki Ammal. In the branch of Hinduism to which Ramanujan belonged, marriage was apage 105 of his notebook, he formulated an equation that could be used to solve the infinitely nested radicals problem. Using this equation, the answer to the question posed in the journal was simply 3. Ramanujan wrote his first formal paper for the journal on the properties of Bernoulli numbers. One property he discovered was that the dominators (sequence a027642 in OEIS) of the fractions of Bernolli numbers were always divisible a method of calculating Bn based on previous Bernolli numbers. One of these methods went as follows:
it will be observed that if n is even but not equal to zero,
(1) Bn is a fraction and the numerator of in its lowest terms is a prime number,
(2) The denominator of Bn contains each of the factors 2 and 3 once and only once,
(3) Is an integer and consequently is an odd integer.
In his 17-page paper, “some properties of Bernolli’s numbers”, Ramanujan gave three proofs, two corollaries and three conjectures. Ramanujan’s writing initially had many flaws. As journal editor M.T.Narayana Iyengar noted:
Mr. Ramanujan’s methods were so terse and novel and his presentation so lacking in clearness and precision, that the ordinary [mathematical reader], unaccustomed to such intellectual gymnastics, could hardly follow him.
Ramanujan later wrote another paper and also continued to provide problems in the journal. In early 1912, he got a temporary job in the madras Account General’s office, with a 20 rupee a month salary. He kept the job for only a few weeks. Towards the end of that job, he applied for a job under the chief accountant of the madras port trust. In a letter dated 9 February 1912, Ramanujan wrote;
Sir,
I understand there is a clerkship vacant in your office, and I beg to apply for the same. I have passed the matriculation examination and studied up to the F.A. but was prevented from pursuing my studies further owing to several untoward circumstances. I have, however, been devoting all my time to mathematics and developing the subject. I can say I am quite confident I can do justice to my work if I am appointed to the post. I therefore beg to request that you will be good enough to confer the appointed on me.
Attached to his application was a recommendation from E.W. middle mast, a mathematics professor at the presidency collage, who wrote that Ramanujan was “a young man of quite exceptional capacity in mathematics.” Three weeks after he had applied, on 1 March, Ramanujan learned that he had been accepted as a class 3, grade 4 accounting clerk, making 30 rupees per month. At his office, Ramanujan easily and quickly completed the work he was given, so he spent his spare time doing his mathematical research. Ramanujan’s boss, sir Francis spring, and S.Narayana Iyer, a colleague who was also treasurer of the Indian mathematical society, encouraged Ramanujan in his mathematical pursuits.
Contacting English mathematicians
Spring, Narayana Iyeru, Ramchandra Rao and E.W. middle mast tried to present Ramanujan’s work to British mathematicians. One mathematician, M.J.M. hill of university of London, commented that Ramanujan’s papers were riddled with holes. He said that although Ramanujan had “a taste for mathematics, and some ability”, he lacked the educational background and offer to take Ramanujan on as a student, he did give thorough and serious professional advice on his work. With the help of friends, Ramanujan drafted letters to leading mathematicians at Cambridge University.
The first two professors, H.F. Baker and E.W. Hobson, returned Ramanujan’s papers without comment. On 16 January 1913, Ramanujan wrote to G.H.Hardy coming from an unknown mathematician, the nine pages of mathematical wonder made Hardy originally view Ramanujan’s Formulas, but others “seemed Scarcely possible on bottom of page three (valid for 0
