British Council Syllabus, Sample of Dissertations

50 pages, 24527 words

British Council – EAQUALS Core Inventory for General English

A Core Inventory for General English

Brian North, Angeles Ortega and Susan Sheehan Publication data Copyright British Council/EAQUALS (European Association for Quality Language Services) except where otherwise stated. ISBN: 978-086355-653-1

Foreword

The embedding of the CEFR in English Language Teaching has been a long process but we have now reached a stage where the CEFR levels and the competences are a core component of teacher training and of daily teacher practice. As a global organisation we at the British Council appreciate the significance of the CEFR. Our websites and teacher resources are global and need the structure and definition provided by the CEFR to make our work more coherent. The British Council is committed to supporting teachers of English worldwide and providing them with training and resources. Applying, and where needed adapting, the CEFR to their own teaching approach is an important competence for teachers, and for many teachers extra training, resources and support are needed to make this successful. This project aims to be one of those resources – providing support to teachers in applying the CEFR to their daily work, by providing a practical inventory of language points that should be a part of a balanced course at each level of the CEFR. Our goal is to provide direction for teachers in how to select inventory items and plan lessons that will help students gain the competences they need within CEFR.

3 pages, 1390 words

The Essay on Indians Who Saw The British India English Events

The conflict and controversy surrounding events in India during the British occupation helped give rise to many conflicting ideas about British rule. Although they varied in degree, the ultimate ideas would question the authority of British dominance, overall. Interpretation of Rebellious events during the nineteenth century between British and Nationalist writers, expose the differing opinion of ...

This project started many years ago as a modest attempt to pull together a core list of discrete language points and key lexis for each level of the CEFR. I set it up as a database of language points and exponents somewhat loosely tied to CEFR levels, as a guide to coursebook contents and lesson planning. To help teachers focus on while planning lessons. It was only partly successful as it did not benefit from the academic rigour and research background which this kind of teaching resource needs. We decided in 2009 to revive this project with the appropriate academic input and research, and approached Brian North and EAQUALS to work together as partners in providing this much-needed (and oft-requested) resource for teachers. Brian North has led an international team of teachers and trainers, with Susan Sheehan coordinating the British Council’s input, and the team has produced a fantastic resource that I believe will be greatly welcomed by ELT teachers everywhere. The project resources will be made available in different formats – poster, booklet, website, ebook – so that we can reach as many teachers as possible. We hope this is useful for your work, and would be delighted to receive feedback and suggestions for extending the project in new directions. Michael Carrier Head English Language Innovation British Council

Acknowledgements

The British Council and EAQUALS would like to thank the following people who contributed to the workshops in this project: Mila Angelova, Rachel Bowden, Peter Brown, Lucy Chambers, Alistair Fortune, Tim Goodier, Clare Grundy, Roxane Harrison, Andrew Hart, Neil Hatfield, Sam Hawes, Nicky Johnson, Nareene Kaloyan, Hanan Khalifa, Maja Kukoya, Martin Lowder, Brian North, Niamh O’Leary, Barry O’Sullivan, Angeles Ortega, Susan Sheehan, Jana Pirkova, Caroline Preston, Richard Simpson, Howard Smith, Liz Tuck, Marieta Tusheva.

1 The CEFR 2 Project Aims 3 Project Procedure 4 Project Products 5 CEFR-based Scenarios 6 A Core Inventory: Documentation of Best Practice 7 Guidelines for Users 8 Conclusion 6 8 9 12 13 18 20 21

Appendices A Salient Characteristics of CEFR levels – spoken language B CEFR-based Scenarios C Mapping Text Types D Mapping Language Content E Exponents for Language Content

3 pages, 1022 words

The Research paper on Child Language Disorder Grade Level

Child Language Disorders Title: Readability Case Study and Scenarios Reference: Gail Port nuff Venable, MS. "Readability Case Study and Scenarios." Topics in Language Disorders 23 (2003): 248-51 Summary: Li Moon, a resource specialist in the Hillsborough City School District in Northern California has completed a study about the use of readability measurement. The surrounding school districts ( ...

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1 The CEFR

Upper Inter The CEFR was published in 2001 in English1 and French after a period of development from 1992 to 1996 and piloting from 1997–2000, has been translated into 40 languages and is now accepted as the international standard for language teaching and learning. The CEFR has two main aims: to encourage reflection by users over the way their current practice meets the real world language needs of their learners and to provide a set of defined common reference levels (A1-C2) as points of reference to facilitate communication and comparisons. The CEFR differs from other, national, language frameworks in two ways:

n Firstly it highlights the competences a learner needs (pragmatic, linguistic, sociolinguistic,

Proficiency Advanced Intermediate Pre-inter Elementary Beginners A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2

strategic, intercultural) as a language user and it develops the familiar but inadequate four skills into a richer description of activities the learner undertakes (spoken and written: reception, interaction, production and mediation).

n Secondly it provides validated, scientifically calibrated descriptors of these different

aspects of its descriptive scheme2, except for intercultural competences and mediation. The most comprehensive set of CEFR-based descriptors is available at www.coe.int/portfolio. Consistent coverage for all levels in simplified “I can” form is provided by the recent EAQUALS revision, also available on www.eaquals.org. The original CEFR descriptors are presented in “I can” form in the EAQUALS/ALTE electronic European Language Portfolio on www.eELP.org. The relevance of the CEFR to language education is firstly that the descriptive scheme offers a starting point to review curriculum content and secondly that the common reference levels provide a framework for putting curriculum objectives, entry testing, syllabus definition, materials organisation, progress testing and certification of proficiency into one coherent local system that is appropriate to the context, related to real world language ability and easily communicated, internally and externally. The CEFR avoids using relative labels like “intermediate” because these mean very different things in different contexts; neither schools nor publishers use these terms consistently and they are also employed in different ways in different educational sectors and in relation to different languages. The analysis in this project confirms that the relationship between the CEFR levels and the labels used by EFL publishers is approximately as follows:

1 page, 424 words

The Essay on Project Report on Inventory Control Techniques

Inventories constitute most significant part of assets of large majority of the companies in India. Inventory a double edged sword is usually an asset of an organization, if not used properly it will become liability. It is therefore absolutely important to manage inventories efficiently and effectively in order to overcome unnecessary investment. Improper inventory management affects long term ...

The relationship is clearest from B1 to C1. Beginners books are clearly A1. Books labelled “elementary” span the content for A1 and A2. The greatest confusion is with books labelled “pre-intermediate” since both schools and publishers use this expression in different ways. Essentially “pre-intermediate” appears to correspond most closely to the more demanding content of A2, sometimes called A2+. In the analysis in this project, beginners’ materials were analysed in relation to A1, pre-intermediate materials in relation to A2, and elementary materials in relation to both A1 and A2.

Council of Europe (2001): Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. North, B. (2000): The Development of a common framework scale of language proficiency. New York, Peter Lang.

North, B. and Schneider, G. (1998): Scaling descriptors for language proficiency scales. In: Language Testing 15/2: 217–262.

2 Aims of the Project

The intention of this project is to make the CEFR accessible to teachers and adult learners of General English. It is an attempt to answer the question put by many teachers over the years of what to teach at each CEFR level. It maps the communality of interpretation of the CEFR for English in terms of curriculum content for 16+. As will be explained in Section 7 the aim is not to tell teachers what to teach or to prescribe a particular teaching methodology. The main project aims are outlined below. To make the CEFR tangible and provide support and guidance for teachers and syllabus designers The question has often been raised as what the CEFR levels mean in terms of classroom aims. The Inventory represents the core of English language relevant at CEFR levels A1 to C1. It can thus facilitate defining objectives, writing syllabuses and planning courses. To make the teaching/planning process more transparent Learners can sometimes find it hard to understand the aim of a particular activity, lesson or indeed course, and its connection to real world needs. The Inventory will assist learners in the process of realising their language learning ambitions by helping them to focus on the different aspects of the language which need to be mastered for progress to be made.

2 pages, 907 words

The Essay on English Language Learner

The United States still represents to the rest of world a land of opportunities. Immigration occurs when people from all part of the world make their way here to start new lives, find their new jobs or build new homes. Some leave their country to flee from oppression and injustice. Some want a life to escape poverty. Now the English Language Learners in America school constantly growing percent of ...

It also offers a structure for negotiations between teachers and learners on course content. To provide support for self-directed study The Inventory can be used as a guide to essential language for self-directed study. The Core Inventory has been created with teachers and learners in mind. Each language point appears at the level(s) at which it is considered of most relevance to the learner in the classroom. What we teach, what learners can do with the language, and what we test in examinations are not always identical. The Core Inventory does not aim to provide detailed guidance for course book or examination developers, for who detailed specifications already exist in the series Waystage, Threshold Level and Vantage Level, gradually being updated by the English Profile project.

3 Project Procedure

The Core Inventory was developed through iterative and collaborative processes, exploiting expertise from within the two partner organisations, including examination boards that are Associate Members of EAQUALS. The project built on existing work and projects conducted by both partners and other experts. The project had five main stages. A series of workshops were held, in the context of an EAQUALS ‘Special Interest Project’ (SIP).

In the workshops practitioners commented on and sense-checked the work completed so far and suggested approaches for the successive stages. Stage 1 Data collection and analysis A number of sources were drawn on including:

n an analysis of the language implied by CEFR descriptors; n an analysis of content common to the syllabuses of EAQUALS members whose CEFR

implementation was a point of excellence;

n an analysis of content of different series of popular course books; n teacher surveys.

The data were analysed to find consensus: points which were common to a strong majority (80%) in each of the data sources. This defined the “core.” Other points common to different sources that were considered significant were retained as “less core;” these points are shown in italics in the lists of exponents in Appendix E. Stage 2 Creation of the Inventory Following the analysis of the data collected at Stage 1, examination boards (Cambridge ESOL, City & Guilds, Trinity) provided further input into which language points they considered to be most relevant. At this stage content for C1 was discussed in detail. Stage 3 Writing the exponents Once the Inventory was finalised, teachers wrote a preliminary version of the exponents which were refined and revised by project team members at an iterative series of workshops. Stage 4 Identifying text types One project member analysed the CEFR descriptors to identify source texts for different CEFR levels. The results of this analysis can be found in Appendix C. Stage 5 Writing CEFR-based scenarios The project team wanted to make explicit the links between real world needs, curriculum aims and the classroom. The final stage of the project was therefore to brainstorm illustrative scenarios that are archetypical of the level concerned. The concept will be explained in Section 5.

6 pages, 2560 words

The Term Paper on Second Language Acquisition

According to Swain, … producing the target language may be the trigger that forces the learner to pay attention to the means of expression needed in order to successfully convey his or her own intended meaning. (Swain 1985: 249) In Swain’s view, learners need not only input, but output: they need to use language in order to learn it. Krashen, however, as recently as 2009, stated that: ...

Functions Directions Describing habits and routines Giving personal information Greetings Telling the time Understanding and using numbers Understanding and using prices

Describing habits and routines Describing past experiences Describing people Describing places Describing things Obligation and necessity Requests Suggestions

Checking understanding Describing experiences and events Describing feelings and emotion Describing places Expressing opinions; language of agreeing and disagreeing Initiating and closing conversation Managing interaction (interrupting, changing topic, resuming or continuing)

Critiquing and reviewing Describing experiences Describing feelings and emotions Describing hopes and plans Developing an argument Encouraging and inviting another speaker to continue, come in Expressing abstract ideas Expressing agreement and disagreement Expressing opinions Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference Interacting informally, reacting, expressing interest, sympathy, surprise etc. Opinion, justification Speculating Taking the initiative in interaction Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing info Adjectives and adverbs Future continuous Future perfect Future perfect continuous Mixed conditionals Modals – can’t have, needn’t have Modals of deduction and speculation Narrative tenses Passives Past perfect Past perfect continuous Phrasal verbs, extended Relative clauses Reported speech Will and going to, for prediction Wish Would expressing habits, in the past

9 pages, 4132 words

The Term Paper on Direct Method in Foreign Language Teaching

Direct method Innovation in foreign language teaching began in the 19th century and, very rapidly, in the 20th century, leading to a number of different methodologies, sometimes conflicting, each trying to be a major improvement over the last or other contemporary methods. The earliеst applied linguists, such as Jean Manesca, Heinrich Gottfried Ollendorff (1803-1865), Henry Sweet (1845-1912), Otto ...

Conceding a point Critiquing and reviewing constructively Defending a point of view persuasively Developing an argument systematically Emphasizing a point, feeling, issue Expressing attitudes and feelings precisely Expressing certainty, probability, doubt Expressing opinions tentatively, hedging Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference Expressing shades of opinion and certainty Responding to counterarguments Speculating and hypothesising about causes, consequences etc. Synthesising, evaluating and glossing information Futures (revision) Inversion with negative adverbials Mixed conditionals in past, present and future Modals in the past Narrative tenses for experience, incl. passive Passive forms, all Phrasal verbs, especially splitting Wish/if only regrets

Core Inventory The Inventory represents the core of English language taught at Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) levels A1 to C1 in English. Only the features most commonly included at each level have been listed. In any particular context, teachers and syllabus writers would add other language points to this minimal core, based upon an analysis of the needs and interests of the learners concerned. Decisions on recycling of language have also been left to teachers and syllabus writers. The inventory can also be used by learners as a guide to essential language for self-directed study. Teaching not testing The core inventory has been created with teachers and learners in mind. Each language point appears at the level(s) at which it is considered of most relevance to the learner in the classroom. Language testers should note that learners are not expected to have mastery of the language points at that stage. What we teach, what learners can do with the language, and what we test in examinations are not always identical. Development methodology A number of sources were drawn on, including: n an analysis of the language implied by CEFR descriptors n an analysis of content common to various CEFR-based language school syllabuses and popular coursebooks for English, and n a teacher survey. Status The Inventory documents current best practice, and can be used in conjunction with databases of learner language like the forthcoming English Profile.

Grammar

Adjectives: common and demonstrative Adverbs of frequency Comparatives and superlatives Going to How much/how many and very common uncountable nouns I’d like Imperatives (+/-) Intensifiers – very basic Modals: can/can’t/could/couldn’t past simple of “to be” Past Simple Possessive adjectives Possessive s Prepositions, common Prepositions of place Prepositions of time, including in/on/at Present continuous Present simple Pronouns: simple, personal Questions There is/are To be, including question+negatives Verb + ing: like/hate/love

Adjectives – comparative, – use of than and definite article Adjectives – superlative – use of definite article Adverbial phrases of time, place and frequency – including word order Adverbs of frequency Articles – with countable and uncountable nouns Countables and Uncountables: much/many Future Time (will and going to) Gerunds Going to Imperatives Modals – can/could Modals – have to Modals – should Past continuous Past simple Phrasal verbs – common Possessives – use of ‘s, s’ Prepositional phrases (place, time and movement) Prepositions of time: on/in/at Present continuous Present continuous for future Present perfect Questions Verb + ing/infinitive: like/ want-would like Wh-questions in past Zero and 1st conditional Linkers: sequential – past time

Adverbs Broader range of intensifiers such as too, enough Comparatives and superlatives Complex question tags Conditionals, 2nd and 3rd Connecting words expressing cause and effect, contrast etc. Future continuous Modals – must/can’t deduction Modals – might, may, will, probably Modals – should have/might have/etc Modals: must/have to Past continuous Past perfect Past simple Past tense responses Phrasal verbs, extended Present perfect continuous Present perfect/past simple Reported speech (range of tenses) Simple passive Wh- questions in the past Will and going to, for prediction

Discourse Markers

Connecting words, and, but, because

Connecting words expressing cause and effect, contrast etc Linkers: sequential past time

Connecting words expressing cause and effect, contrast etc. Discourse markers to structure fromal speech Linkers: although, in spite of, despite Linkers: sequential – past time – subsequently Collocation Colloquial language

Linking devices, logical markers Markers to structure and signpost formal and informal speech and writing

Vocabulary

Food and drink Nationalities and countries Personal information Things in the town, shops and shopping Verbs – basic

Adjectives: personality, description, feelings Food and drink Things in the town, shops and shopping Travel and services

Collocation Colloquial language Things in the town, shops and shopping Travel and services

Approximating (vague language) Collocation Colloquial language Differentiated use of vocabulary Eliminating false friends Formal and informal registers Idiomatic expressions Arts Books and literature Film Media News, lifestyles and current affairs Scientific developments Technical and legal language

Topics

Family life Hobbies and pastimes Holidays Leisure activities Shopping Work and jobs

Education Hobbies and pastimes Holidays Leisure activities Shopping Work and jobs

Books and literature Education Film Leisure activities Media News, lifestyles and current affairs

Arts Books and literature Education Film Media News, lifestyles and current affairs

4 Project Products

The Core Inventory Project has 3 products: this book, an essential guide and a set of classroom posters. Book This provides the most comprehensive version of the Core Inventory and includes core and less core language points plus a mapping of text types across levels. This gives users of the Inventory the widest possible choice when designing a syllabus or course. As mentioned above illustrative scenarios are also provided for each level and an extensive set of language exponents exemplify the language points. Essential guide This contains a short listing of “core” functions, grammar, lexis, discourse markers, topic areas and text types for levels A1 to C1, accompanied by a brief summary of the project aims and guidance. It fits onto one A3 sheet and can be used by learners as a guide to essential language for self-directed study. It is produced on the previous pages and can be downloaded separately from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/ and www.eaquals.org. Classroom posters Posters have been designed for each of the 5 CEFR levels from A1 to C1. Each poster includes “Can do” descriptors for activities and strategies, core language points with exponents, and qualitative criteria. The posters make the content of the Inventory easily accessible to teachers and learners and provide a focus point for classroom discussions on course content and planning. They can be ordered from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/ from January 2011.

5 CEFR-based Scenarios

Scenarios are not a new concept in theoretical and applied linguistics, or language teaching/ learning, but the word is used in many different senses. There are several points that most uses of the term in our context have in common. Firstly a scenario suggests a mental framework, a concept for how the thing in question is “done” in the relevant target language. Language users and language learners have scripts and schemata for scenarios they are familiar with. Secondly, there is a strong association with real world language use rather than exercises or pedagogic tasks, a sense that a scenario provides a meaningful context for simulated yet realistic language use by the learner. In a real-world derived scenario, simulations replace mere role-plays as we move from fictional personalities in artificial situations to real people acting as themselves in real contexts. Finally and fundamentally a scenario suggests a holistic setting that encourages the integration of different aspects of competence in real (istic) language use. Properly conceived scenarios automatically create an appropriate background to support learning and teaching where the main consideration is that of authenticity of situations, tasks, activities, texts and language data. CEFR-based scenarios are frames that in the context of a set of defined real world variables (domain, context, tasks, types of language activity and texts involved) integrate holistically:

n “Can-Do” descriptors (as objectives); n quality criteria (for evaluation); n aspects of competence, from strategic, through pragmatic to linguistic

(as enabling objectives).

The CEFR-based scenario concept is relevant to both teaching/learning and to assessment. The scenario template has two pages with a fixed format for page one (overview) and a variable one for page two (implementation).

This is because the latter will vary substantially depending on the educational context and on whether the scenario informs a series of teaching and learning activities, perhaps concluding with an assessment, or just an assessment. The significant point about CEFR-based scenarios is that they offer teachers and learners a way of keeping in mind both the macro vision of successful real communication and the micro focus on specific practice points. Scenarios are a tool for defining, teaching and/or assessing the competences needed to perform real world tasks. They are not necessarily an extended communicative activity in the classroom, which one works towards or back from as for example in the many variations of a task-based approach. The tasks listed at the top (after domain and context) are real life tasks, not pedagogic tasks and so they may not take place in the classroom at all. It is desirable, however, that for the sake of more effective learning real life tasks and pedagogic tasks be as closely related as possible. An example scenario is given below; other illustrative scenarios for levels A1 to C1 are included in Appendix B.

14 DOMAIN

Occupational

Sustained monologue PowerPoint presentation Formal discussion

SCENARIO: BUSINESS MEETING

CONTEXT

Organisation: Multinational corporation Location: Office Persons: Colleagues Making own proposal Spoken Interaction Contributing opinion on other proposal Spoken Production Attending meeting Listening as member of live audience

TASKS

ACTIVITIES

TEXTS

LEVEL

CAN-DOS* STRATEGIC Intervene appropriately, using a variety of expressions to do so. Follow the discussion on matters related to his/her field, and understand in detail the points given prominence by the speaker. Contribute, account for and sustain his/her opinion, evaluate alternative proposals, and make and respond to hypotheses. Monitor speech to correct slips and mistakes. Give clear, detailed descriptions and presentations on a wide range of subjects related to his/her field of interest. Develop a clear argument, expanding and supporting his/ her points of view at some length with subsidiary points and relevant examples.

COMPETENCES

Follow up what people say, relating contribution to those of others. Overcome gaps in vocabulary with paraphrases and alternative expressions.

CRITERIA*

PRAGMATIC Can express himself / herself appropriately in situations and avoid crass errors of formulation. Functional APPROPRIATENESS

Expressing abstract ideas Giving precise information Speculating Developing an argument Justification

COHERENCE

Can use a variety of linking words efficiently to mark clearly the relationships between ideas.

Discourse

Formal Speech Markers Complex sentences Addition, sequence and contrast (although; in spite of; despite; on the one hand…) Summarising

FLUENCY

LINGUISTIC

Grammatical

Modals of deduction in the past All passive forms All conditionals Collocation of intensifiers Wide range of (complex) NPs Lexical Phonological Work-related collocations Extended phrasal verbs Intonation patterns

Can produce stretches of language with a fairly even tempo; although he/she can be hesitant as he/she searches for patterns and expressions, there are few noticeably long pauses.

RANGE

Has a sufficient range of language to be able to give clear descriptions, express viewpoints and develop arguments without much conspicuous searching for words, using some complex sentence forms to do so.

* Taken verbatim from the CEFR. Portfolio or school’s adapted descriptors might be used.

Overview: Angeles Ortega. Implementation: Howard Smith

SCENARIO IMPLEMENTATION

Competence(s)

Formal speech markers. Engage Intervene appropriately, using a variety of expressions to do so. Follow up what people say, relating contribution to those of others. Grammar: conditionals Speculating Developing an argument Justifying Lexis: work/business related collocations Phonology: Intonation Discourse: Intervention/reaction language Discourse markers Classroom – groups ‘Just a minute’ style discussion/game – learners assigned discourse markers and try to include them unobtrusively into rapid discussion on a variety of topics. Passive forms Study Passive forms Business/work related lexis If clauses/conditionals Speculating Justifying Extended phrasal verbs Discourse markers Formal speech markers Intonation Giving opinion persuasively Intonation Activate Giving precise information Being persuasive Developing an argument Responding to contributions All Groups (classroom) Meeting simulation, either completely imaginary or ‘pseudo-real’ (e.g. meeting to make suggestions re: college’s social programme or canteen) Role cards (if appropriate) Agenda Computer/projector All Real world Participate in a real meeting (either in learners’ own working environment or e.g. a ‘college council’) and report back. Report could take the form of a further presentation or a formal written report. (report could take the form of a further presentation or a formal written report Home Classroom Classroom Text from business press – mark ideas for opinion and fact. Guided discovery – tonality/tonicity Mark up text with tone units/tonic stresses and practise reading aloud. Devil’s advocacy: Mini-presentations – learners write mini-presentation at home advocating an point of view – Deliver presentation using PowerPoint and answer questions. Laptop/desktop computer and dataprojector Presentation software Home/Self study Home Classroom Exercise introducing and practising phrasal verbs in a business context Listen to business news and note language features in context – peer teach Classroom Home Classroom – pairs Grammar activity – practise form and function of passive Business news article, rewritten with all passives made active – learners reconstruct original text. Discuss reasons for opting for passive over active form. Language analysis followed by micro-discussions of possible consequences of various business decisions Situation>decision cards – invented or based on real business scenarios. Exercise/dictionary Radio/internet connection Text (opinion piece) from business press. Home/self-study Web-quest – Note lexis and collocation; listen to business news/transcribe and learn a short stretch of speech Webquest directing learners to sites including business training sites and business news radio. Discourse markers on cards. Grammar activity Article (rewritten)

Learning context

Classroom – whole class /group discussion Classroom – group/whole class

Activity

Watch TV business reality show discussion – discuss which contestant they find more persuasive – analyse language to identify features marking formal discussion, relating contribution and persuasion. Play online ‘Tycoon”-style game collaboratively either groups with individual PCs or projected onto board – discussing strategy between ‘turns’.

Materials

Recorded/online episode of reality show.

Online/downloaded ‘Tycoon” game. (Data-projector/IWB)

Possible activities brainstormed into a familiar lesson-planning model – in this case Jeremy Harmer’s Engage – Study- Activate (See Harmer How to Teach English Longman 1998).

This model chosen in part due to its resemblance to the CEFR general competences: savoir être, savoir, savoir faire (pp. 11-12, 101-130) Though any model familiar to teachers could be used, e.g. ARC (Scrivener Learning Teaching Macmillan 1994); PPP; Jane Willis’ TBL framework (Willis A Framework for Task Based Learning Longman 1996) Stages can then be fitted into normal lesson planning.

This is the rationale behind the layout.3 To emphasise the importance of real world orientation of the CEFR’s action-oriented approach, the top row of the scenario first page shows the real world variables: domain, context, tasks, activities and texts. The domains are those listed in the CEFR and illustrated in detail in CEFR Table 5: personal, public, occupational, educational. The contexts (CEFR 4.1.2-5) are defined in terms of the persons and places involved, thus comprising relevant features of the specific physical environment and the language users’ mental contexts and interrelationships, both of which will have an effect on the characteristics of the texts to be understood, (co-)produced and processed. The tasks are selected from the vast array of those the language user will have to tackle “in order to deal with the exigencies of the situations which arise in the various domains” (CEFR 4.3).

Activities and texts are those included and described in detail in CEFR Chapter 4. Working from real world use helps to identify the relevance of all these variables to the learners in question. If there is a problem identifying a context, for example, this is an indication that the subject of the scenario may not be a real world scenario at all, but a pedagogic task or game that would not occur in reality. The left hand column of page one of the scenarios then lists CEFR-based descriptors relevant to them: first “Can-Do” descriptors for communicative language activities (derived from CEFR Chapter 4) and then descriptors for aspects of quality (derived from CEFR Chapter 5), the latter being combined into a convenient number of criteria. The examples all show published CEFR descriptors, but these might very well be the adapted, simplified versions found in the checklists for the EAQUALS/ALTE European Language Portfolio (ELP) and in school curricula elaborated from CEFR/ELP descriptors. The right hand side of page one lists aspects of competences. CEFR-based descriptors for strategies provided in the EAQUALS descriptor bank and reproduced in the appendices may be useful as a starting point, but there may well be other strategies relevant to the scenario in question. Underneath strategic competences come pragmatic (functional and discourse) and linguistic (grammatical, lexical and phonological/orthographic).

Again a CEFRbased scenario developer may find the Core Inventory useful as a starting point in identifying appropriate entries here. The CEFR-based scenarios provided in Appendix B are given purely for the purpose of illustration. An attempt has been made to provide scenarios that are felt to be in some way archetypical for the different levels in that they involve salient features of the level concerned (cf CEFR Section 3.6), that are of different types and so can provide illustrations of variations for the second page (Implementation).

Some of these implementations are in order of pedagogic sequence, others ordered by content, others following a real-world action sequence, still others are in the order in which they were brain-stormed. The intention is to demonstrate that whilst there is a logic to standardising the form of the first page (Objectives overview) used in an educational institution, flexibility with different formats for the scenario implementation will encourage experimentation and perhaps a link to pedagogic structures that may be familiar to learners from their specific pedagogic culture or training. The illustrative scenarios provided in Appendix B show only a few of the many variations possible. In most cases, more and/or more detailed processes, tasks and activities can be derived from those presented.

The diagram below illustrates some ways in which activities might be sequenced. The variants illustrated in the diagram do not correspond to the particular illustrative scenarios provided in Appendix B.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

Activity 1

Assess 1

Activity 1

Activity 2

Assess 2

Activity 1

Assess 1

Activity 3 Real world

Activity 3

Assess 3

Activity 1

Activity 4

Activity 3 Real world

Assessment

The number of activities in different scenarios will vary considerably depending on the orientation of the scenario and the type of tasks it implies. The diagram illustrates some possible variants, very many others are possible. Assessment might be conducted in a single task at the end of the module, or in mini-tasks during the module. Peer and self-assessment might be employed as well as teacher assessment. There might in fact be no teaching module; the scenario may be used only as the starting point to design an assessment task. The CEFR-based scenario concept offers a means to:

n■ Work top down from real world contexts to identify the competences needed to be

successful in them, plus criteria to judge that success. Both the communicative language activities listed and the aspects of competence needed to be successful in them suggest classroom activities. These in turn suggest specific lessons or lesson sequences (=modules), with self-study and project tasks.

n■ Review existing classroom activities and resources in the light of the needs of real world

activities, in a bottom-up process.

n■ Integrate practice activities and assessment tasks into a coherent module. n■ Develop a tasks specification for a test, with the assessment procedure, assessment

conditions, marking and grading procedures etc. specified on the second page. It is a very flexible yet unifying concept that facilitates top-down planning of objectives and bottom-up linking of enabling competences to real world needs.

Ortega Calvo, Ángeles (2010), “¿Qué son en realidad los niveles C? Desarrollo de sus descriptores en el MCER y el PEL”, en Ortega Calvo (ed.) Niveles C: Currículos, programación, enseñanza y certificación, Madrid: IFIIE – Ministerio de Educación, pp. 21-85

6 A Core Inventory: Documentation of Good Practice

The project team aimed to hold a mirror to the profession and look at how the CEFR is being integrated into classroom practice. The aim was not to tell teachers what to teach. Rather, it is to show how the CEFR can be implemented in classrooms around the world. The project draws on a collective pool of experience with the CEFR. We hope users of the Inventory will find it beneficial to reflect on their experience and their current practice. The Core Inventory is a documentation of good practice. In the future it will be interesting to compare the Inventory with data-based research conducted with learners (e.g. in the English Profile project) and note points of similarity and contrast. Fruitful avenues of research could be opened up to investigate possible explanations or reasons for the differences. Where more contrasts may be expected between an intuition-based and data-based approach is with exponents. The exponents produced in this project are intended to be illustrative rather than exhaustive. They serve as examples to learners and teachers in the same way as course book examples do. The methodology adopted by the project team could be considered by other institutions. This could provide interesting points of comparison with the results presented in this book. Members of the profession can assess the relevance to their own contexts. One of the most fascinating aspects of the project was to track points of commonality across the profession. As can be seen in the tables below the relevance of a language point to different CEFR levels can be mapped. The pattern below reflects the analysis of all the data sources drawn on. Team members were genuinely surprised at the extent of agreement between the different types of sources: course books, teachers, examination boards, syllabus writers. This would seem to suggest that across the profession there is broad agreement on, for example, when different aspects of the future should be introduced into the classroom. The lighter shading represents a lower, but still very significant, level of consensus. In Appendix E, less core points are given in italics.

A1 Future

Future Time (going to) Future Time (present continuous) Future Time (will & going to) Future Continuous Future Perfect Future Perfect Continuous Prediction Prediction Prediction Prediction Prediction Prediction Prediction

A similar consensus can be seen in the table below which shows the order in which modal verbs become relevant to the classroom. Modals: Can Can/can’t Can/could Modals: Possibility Might, may Possibly, probably, perhaps Might, may, will, probably Must/can’t (deduction) Modals: Obligation & Necessity Must/mustn’t Have to Must/have to Should Ought to Need to/needn’t Modals: Past Should have/might have/etc Can’t have, needn’t have A1 A2 B1 B2 C1

7 Guidelines for Users

The Core Inventory is intended as a reference work not as a practical tool. The aim was to provide a simple overview of the apparent consensus on what constitutes the most important content for teaching and learning at each level. More detailed, comprehensive specifications are already available for levels A2 (Waystage) B1 (Threshold Level) and B2 (Vantage Level).4 In a few years the English Profile project will also provide a detailed analysis of learner language at the different CEFR levels, which may then stimulate a new round of reflection. The Inventory of an overlapping consensus is, by definition, not complete. The degree of consensus is also noticeably greater at levels A1 to B2 than at C1. Indeed detailed analysis of both syllabus and course book content at C1 revealed that content was dictated to a far greater extent by context, learning purpose and the preferences of the author than was the case at lower levels. Syllabuses for C2 showed even less consensus, except as regards preparation for the CPE examination. The C levels are generally accepted to be the levels most in need of more detailed definition, and it is here that the English Profile project is focusing its efforts. The level of consensus was greatest at B1 reflecting the influence of Threshold Level, which was originally published in 1976. A consensus core is also, by definition, inadequate to meet the needs of any particular group of learners. It may give a point of reference, but an analysis of the needs of the learners in question should give the basis for actual teaching. This needs analysis operates at two levels: at a more macro level in the definition of curriculum objectives and at a micro level in relation to needs of a particular class, both in terms of what language learners need for what they want to do, and what language they need to address significant gaps in their developing repertoires. The message therefore is: this inventory may be a convenient tool, but it is to be used with care. Some points of good practice and tempting pitfalls to avoid are listed below: Do Consciously identify real world learners’ needs and derive teaching content from genuine real world contexts Brainstorm your own CEFR-based scenarios with colleagues and students

Supplement the points in the Inventory with things you know the learners in your context need Adapt the exponents to your own context by changing names, place names, activities etc. Give learners language exponents in a context whenever possible

8 Conclusion

The Core Inventory is not seen as the definitive analysis of the needs of learners of English. It is selective, not comprehensive; it is based on experience and consensus, not data-based analysis of the language that learners actually use. Nevertheless, the British Council and EAQUALS hope that it will be of assistance in helping ELT practitioners engage with the CEFR and to adopt its “action-oriented approach” of working from an analysis of learners’ real world needs to learning-focused classroom practice. CEFR descriptors can be used for signposting in curriculum aims, syllabuses, crossreferenced resources lists, weekly/monthly plans, classroom displays, lesson aims, evaluation checklists, report cards, personal profiles, certificates etc. Within a class, such signposting can help to set priorities, explain syllabus choice and lesson relevance, select appropriate communicative tasks and assess progress. Various forms of such signposting are common in EAQUALS member institutions and British Council teaching centres. Sometimes there is an aims box on the whiteboard for each lesson. Sometimes there are displays of the main aims of the level – as in the poster produced in this project. Sometimes there are checklists for teachers to use for planning and for continuous assessment. Sometimes there are report cards, profiles or certificates given to learners. What all approaches have in common is that the signposting provided by the descriptors allows learners to be treated as partners in the learning process. As well as defining real world outcomes, the approach can be used to give context, to show why one is learning particular language or focusing on particular aspects of language use. In this way it can help to provide a genuinely communicative, competence-focused teaching approach: an “action-oriented approach.”

Don’t Teach obscure corners of the language just “because they are there” Dress up pedagogic activities as real world scenarios Think you only have to teach what is in the Inventory or that you must teach everything that is in the Inventory Cut and paste lists and exponents uncritically into your syllabus Make learners learn lists of exponents

4 van Ek, J.A; Trim, J.L.M. (2001): Waystage, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press van Ek, J.A; Trim, J.L.M. (2001): Threshold 1990, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press van Ek, J.A; Trim, J.L.M. (2001): Vantage, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

Appendices

A Salient Characteristics of CEFR levels – spoken language B CEFR-based Scenarios C Mapping Text Types D Mapping Language Content E Exponents for Language Content 23 26 36 38 43

Appendix A: Salient Characteristics (CEFR Section 3.6, simplified)

It cannot be overemphasized that Level C2 is not intended to imply native-speaker competence or even near native-speaker competence. Both the original research and a project using CEF descriptors to rate mother-tongue as well as foreign language competence (North 2002: CEF Case Studies volume) showed the existence of ambilingual speakers well above the highest defined level (C2).

Wilkins had identified a seventh level of “Ambilingual Proficiency” in his 1978 proposal for a European scale for unit-credit schemes. Italics in the text below represents direct citation of CEFR descriptors. C2 Level C2, labelled, ‘Mastery’ is intended to characterise the degree of precision, appropriateness and ease with the language which typifies the speech of those who have been highly successful learners. Descriptors calibrated here include: convey finer shades of meaning precisely by using, with reasonable accuracy, a wide range of modification devices; has a good command of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms with awareness of connotative level of meaning; backtrack and restructure around a difficulty so smoothly the interlocutor is hardly aware of it. C1 Level C1 was labelled Effective Operational Proficiency. What seems to characterise this level is good access to a broad range of language, which allows fluent, spontaneous communication, as illustrated by the following examples: Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously, almost effortlessly. Has a good command of a broad lexical repertoire allowing gaps to be readily overcome with circumlocutions. There is little obvious searching for expressions or avoidance strategies; only a conceptually difficult subject can hinder a natural, smooth flow of language. The discourse skills characterising the previous band continue to be evident at Level C1, with an emphasis on more fluency, for example: select a suitable phrase from a fluent repertoire of discourse functions to preface his remarks in order to get the floor, or to gain time and keep it whilst thinking; produce clear, smoothly‑flowing, well‑structured speech, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices B2+ This band represents a strong Vantage performance. The focus on argument, effective social discourse and on language awareness which appears at B2 continues. However, the focus on argument and social discourse can also be interpreted as a new focus on discourse skills. This new degree of discourse competence shows itself in conversational management (co-operating strategies): give feedback on and follow up statements and inferences by other speakers and so help the development of the discussion; relate own contribution skilfully to those of other speakers. It is also apparent in relation to coherence/ cohesion: use a variety of linking words efficiently to mark clearly the relationships between ideas; develop an argument systematically with appropriate highlighting of significant points, and relevant supporting detail. Finally, it is at this band that there is a concentration of items on negotiating.

B2 Descriptors calibrated at Level B2 represent quite a break with the content so far. For example at the lower end of the band there is a focus on effective argument: account for and sustain his opinions in discussion by providing relevant explanations, arguments and comments; explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options; develop an argument giving reasons in support of or against a particular point of view; take an active part in informal discussion in familiar contexts, commenting, putting point of view clearly, evaluating alternative proposals and making and responding to hypotheses. Secondly, running right through the level there are two new focuses. The first is being able to more than hold your own in social discourse: e.g. understand in detail what is said to him/ her in the standard spoken language even in a noisy environment; initiate discourse, take his turn when appropriate and end conversation when he/she needs to, though he/she may not always do this elegantly; interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without imposing strain on either party. The second new focus is a new degree of language awareness: correct mistakes if they have led to misunderstandings; make a note of “favourite mistakes” and consciously monitor speech for it/them; generally correct slips and errors if he/she becomes conscious of them. B1+ This band seems to be a strong Threshold performance. The same two main features at B1 continue to be present, with the addition of a number of descriptors which focus on the exchange of quantities of information, for example: provide concrete information required in an interview/consultation (e.g. describe symptoms to a doctor) but does so with limited precision; explain why something is a problem; summarise and give his or her opinion about a short story, article, talk, discussion interview, or documentary and answer further questions of detail; carry out a prepared interview, checking and confirming information, though he/she may occasionally has to ask for repetition if the other person’s response is rapid or extended; describe how to do something, giving detailed instructions; exchange accumulated factual information on familiar routine and non‑routine matters within his field with some confidence. B1 Level B1 reflects the Threshold Level specification and is perhaps most categorised by two features. The first feature is the ability to maintain interaction and get across what you want to, in a range of contexts, for example: generally follow the main points of extended discussion around him/her, provided speech is clearly articulated in standard dialect; express the main point he/she wants to make comprehensibly; keep going comprehensibly, even though pausing for grammatical and lexical planning and repair is very evident, especially in longer stretches of free production. The second feature is the ability to cope flexibly with problems in everyday life, for example cope with less routine situations on public transport; deal with most situations likely to arise when making travel arrangements through an agent or when actually travelling; enter unprepared into conversations on familiar topics. A2+ This band represents a strong Waystage (A2+) performance. What is noticeable here is more active participation in conversation given some assistance and certain limitations, for example: understand enough to manage simple, routine exchanges without undue effort; make him/herself understood and exchange ideas and information on familiar topics in

predictable everyday situations, provided the other person helps if necessary; deal with everyday situations with predictable content, though he/she will generally have to compromise the message and search for words; plus significantly more ability to sustain monologues, for example: express how he/she feels in simple terms; give an extended description of everyday aspects of his environment e.g. people, places, a job or study experience; describe past activities and personal experiences; describe habits and routines; describe plans and arrangements; explain what he/she likes or dislikes about something. A2 Level A2 appears to reflect the level referred to by the Waystage specification. It is at this level that the majority of descriptors stating social functions are to be found, like use simple everyday polite forms of greeting and address; greet people, ask how they are and react to news; handle very short social exchanges; ask and answer questions about what they do at work and in free time; make and respond to invitations; discuss what to do, where to go and make arrangements to meet; make and accept offers. Here too are to be found descriptors on getting out and about: the simplified cut-down version of the full set of transactional specifications in “The Threshold Level” for adults living abroad, like: make simple transactions in shops, post offices or banks; get simple information about travel; use public transport: buses, trains, and taxis, ask for basic information, ask and give directions, and buy tickets; ask for and provide everyday goods and services. A1 Level A1 is the lowest level of generative language use – the point at which the learner can interact in a simple way, ask and answer simple questions about themselves, where they live, people they know, and things they have, initiate and respond to simple statements in areas of immediate need or on very familiar topics, rather than relying purely on a very finite rehearsed, lexically organised repertoire of situation-specific phrases.

26 DOMAIN

Personal Public People: officials, hotel/shop & other personnel, other travellers/holidaymakers Forms, postcards Notices, instructions, brochures Finding your way Socializing Written Production Spoken Interaction Spoken Production Contracting and using services (e.g. hire & pick up car; check in at hotel) Reading instructions/for information & orientation Transactions, conversations public transport, entertainment Travelling & instructions Places: airports, hotels, shops, restaurants, Getting information to book a trip Listening to announcements Sustained monologue: description

SCENARIO: ON HOLIDAY

CONTEXT TASKS ACTIVITIES TEXTS

LEVEL

CAN-DOS* Can understand numbers, prices and times. Can ask for and give personal information (address, telephone number, nationality, age, family, and hobbies).

Can handle numbers, quantities, cost and time. Can ask and answer simple questions, initiate and respond to simple statements in areas of immediate need or on very familiar topics. PRAGMATIC Functional Can understand questions and instructions addressed carefully and slowly to him/her, and follow short, simple directions. STRATEGIC

COMPETENCES

Establish contact with people using simple words, phrases and gestures Ask someone to repeat what they said more slowly Invite help with gesture when you don’t know the word Understanding and using numbers Understanding and using prices Greetings Giving personal information Understanding simple directions and instructions Discourse LINGUISTIC Grammatical Connecting words (and, but, because) Simple verb forms Questions Present simple I’d like Prepositions and prepositional phrases Lexical Nationalities and countries Personal information Things in the town, shops and shopping

CRITERIA*

Interaction Can interact in a simple way but communication is totally dependent on repetition, rephrasing and repair.

Coherence

Can link words or groups of words with very basic linear connectors like “and” or “then”. Has a very basic repertoire of words and simple phrases related to personal details and particular concrete situations.

Range

This is a sequence of assessed tasks related to a sequence of tasks associated with being on holiday. The precise order of activities is left to the teacher or learner.

Susan Sheehan

EXPONENT

There are 500 people in our village How much does the room cost? 45 Euros per night Hi John, how are you today? My name is Carlos I am from the north of China I live in Beirut The hotel is on the left Go to the end of the street and turn right Where is the supermarket? It’s straight ahead She lives in Switzerland and goes skiing a lot I don’t like Indian food but I like Chinese

COMPETENCE

Understanding & using numbers Understanding & using prices Greetings Giving personal information

ACTIVITY

Teacher presentation and controlled practice using appropriate course book or other available materials Teacher presentation and controlled practice using appropriate course book or other available materials. This can be developed into a mingle activity.

ASSESSMENT

Sequence of short role plays

Group mingle can be an assessed activity

Understanding simple directions and instructions Prepositions and prepositional phrases Connecting words (and, but, because)

Teacher presentation using appropriate visual materials. Students complete an information gap activity or a real world mystery tour. Using short texts teacher asks students to notice the connecting words and the role they play in the text. For homework students complete a text with the necessary connecting words.

Students complete a map activity in pairs

Students write a postcard and teacher assesses how the connecting words are used Are you French? No I’m not Is she from Egypt? What is your name? How much does it cost? Pedro is Spanish but he works in France She’s married and has three children I am 26 years old, single and I work in a bank No I’m not tired France is a wonderful country I am a psychology student at the moment Where is the supermarket/train station? How much does this cost? Does this bus go to the town centre? I want to buy a phone I’d like a cup of coffee/I’d like to go home Establish contact with people using simple words, phrases and gestures Ask someone to repeat what they said more slowly Invite help with gesture when you don’t know the word Teacher presentation and practice in small groups/pairs. This assessment can be integrated in the role plays outlined above Things in the town, shops and shopping Travel & services vocabulary I’d like Teacher presentation using appropriate visual aids and course book materials. Students perform controlled practice in pairs. Role play in a shop, obtaining travel services Questions Nationalities and countries Personal information Simple verb forms Present simple After appropriate presentation by teacher students engage in a mingling activity asking and answering personal questions and questions about nationalities and countries if it is a multi-national task or role play an international gathering. Completing an immigration form/landing card/hotel check-in form Role plays of the following situations: picking a car up at the airport, checking in to a hotel, planning and booking a day trip

28 DOMAIN

Personal People: friends or colleagues Presenting the plan Reaching consensus on the final plan Informal discussion Spoken production: sustained monologue Finding information on where to go/what’s on Spoken interaction: informal discussion with friends Place: workplace, school Planning an outing in a small group Reading for orientation Informational printed material (brochures, leaflets etc) Calendars, programmes and descriptions (on websites)

SCENARIO: OUT TOGETHER

CONTEXT TASKS ACTIVITIES TEXTS

LEVEL

CAN-DOS* STRATEGIC Skim to identify relevant texts, sections of texts. Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters to do with work and free time. Can identify specific information in simpler written material he/she encounters such as letters, brochures and short newspaper articles describing events /advertisements, prospectuses, menus, reference lists and timetables. PRAGMATIC Functional Can ask and answer questions and exchange ideas and information on familiar topics in predictable everyday situations. Can discuss everyday practical issues in a simple way: what to do, where to go and make arrangements to meet. Can make and respond to suggestions. Can agree and disagree with others. Discourse LINGUISTIC Can make him/herself understood in short contributions, even though pauses, false starts and reformulation are very evident. Grammatical

COMPETENCES

Scan for specific services/information (e.g. times, prices).

Ask for clarification about key words or phrases not understood using stock phrases. Use an inadequate word from repertoire and use gesture to clarify. Describing places Describing activities Describing past experiences Suggestions Agreeing and disagreeing Managing interaction Simple connectors “and” “but” and “because” Present simple Prepositional phrases (time, place and movement) Prepositions of time (at/on/in) Questions Zero and 1st conditionals Could (possibility) Modals: should Past simple Lexical Things in the town Travel and services vocabulary

CRITERIA*

FLUENCY

RANGE:

Can communicate what he/she wants to say in a simple and direct exchange of limited information on familiar and routine matters. Can use basic sentence patterns and communicate with memorised phrases, groups of a few words. Has sufficient vocabulary to conduct everyday discussion involving familiar situations and topics. It is usually clear what he/she is trying to say. Can link groups of words with simple connectors like “and, “but” and “because”. Can use simple techniques to start, maintain, or end a short turn in conversation.

ACCURACY COHERENCE INTERACTION

*From the CEFR. Overview and implementation: Brian North

SCENARIO IMPLEMENTATION

The educational context is an intensive course in a region where the language is spoken. Activities are presented in a possible order; however, other sequencing is clearly possible.

SEQ

1 Past simple

COMPETENCES

Describing past experiences Things in the town vocabulary Travel and services vocabulary

STUDY CONTEXT

Classroom– Teacher 1

ACTIVITIES

Warm-up – Teacher-led Pair information gap Writing a short text describing experiences Computer room, paired learners Homework Quizzes with remedial exercise practice Exercise

MATERIALS

Students’ weekends. No specific material

Prepositional phrases (time, place and movement) Prepositions of time (at/on/in) Scan for specific services /information (e.g. times, prices) Things in the town vocabulary Travel and services vocabulary Describing places Describing activities Managing interaction

M/C computer quizzes, easy / difficult Gap fill teacher-produced test Classroom– Teacher 2 Search reading activity Information-gap group work Authentic leaflets, brochures, adverts etc for tourist and cultural offers

Suggestions Simple connectors “and” “but” and “because” Agreeing and disagreeing 5 Skim to identify relevant texts, sections of texts Describing activities 6 Questions Things in the town vocabulary Travel and services vocabulary Ask for clarification about key words or phrases not understood using stock phrases. Use an inadequate word from repertoire and use gesture to clarify. 7 All

Classroom– Teacher 1 Homework

Presentation + practice Completing dialogues

Coursebook

Homework/ computer room alone

Web search

List of suggested information sites Google and other search engines Homework Classroom Out on the town Preparing questions Sharing and correcting questions Role-playing rehearsals Collecting information from information services and venues – Face to face – Telephone Search reading activity Classroom– Teacher 1 Relating offers found Small group discussion – consensus task Websites and infos identified and collected by students Students think up the questions and write them down. No specific material

30 DOMAIN

Occupational/ Personal People: online acquaintances Giving/responding to feedback Location: home/office Contributing to online discussion Written production Setting: Work/domestic Reading online comments/conversation Participating in online discussion/debate Messageboard/blog posts

SCENARIO: ONLINE FORUM

CONTEXT TASK ACTIVITIES TEXTS

LEVEL

CAN-DOS* Can read columns/blogs and other entries in which someone takes a stand on a current topic or event and understand the overall meaning of the text. Can guess the meaning of single unknown words from the context thus deducing the meaning of expressions if the topic is familiar. Can understand, in private letters, those parts dealing with events, feelings and wishes well enough to correspond regularly with a pen friend.. Can write simple connected texts on a range of topics within his/ her field of interest and can express personal views and opinions. PRAGMATIC Functional Can write personal messages to friends or acquaintances asking for or giving them news and narrating events. STRATEGIC

COMPETENCES

dentify unfamiliar words from the context on topics related to his/ her field and interests. Identify key points and ideas in a text on a familiar topic and avoid being distracted by subsidiary points. Intervene in a (written) discussion on a familiar topic. Ask someone to clarify or elaborate what he or she has just said. Correct slips and errors if he/she becomes conscious of them or if they have led to misunderstandings escribing experiences and events Expressing opinions: language of agreeing and disagreeing Managing interaction Discourse Connecting words expressing cause and effect, contrast etc Comparatives and superlatives Conditionals, 1st and 2nd Modals – might, may, will, Modals – should have, might have etc Range of verb forms (past, present and future) Reported speech

CRITERIA*

APPROPRIATENESS COHERENCE Can link a series of shorter, discrete simple elements into a connected, linear sequence of points. Is aware of the salient politeness conventions and acts appropriately. LINGUISTIC

Grammatical

RANGE Has enough language to get by, with sufficient vocabulary to express him/herself on topics such as hobbies and interests, work, travel, and current events. Can identify the main conclusions in clearly signalled argumentative texts. Can recognise the line of argument in the treatment of the issue presented, though not necessarily in detail. ACCURACY Can express the main point he/she wants to make comprehensibly with reasonable precision. Communicates with reasonable accuracy in familiar contexts; generally good control though with noticeable mother tongue influence. Errors occur, but it is clear what he/she is trying to express.

Lexical

Collocation and lexis related to familiar topics and interests

COMPREHENSION

* From the CEFR. Portfolio or school’s adapted descriptors might be used. Overview & Implementation: Howard Smith

SCENARIO IMPLEMENTATION

Activities were brainstormed in the order shown and assigned to a stage of the process. See below for suggestions on sequencing.

STAGE

Lexis/grammar 1

COMPETENCES

Strategy – Identify key points and ideas in a text on a familiar topic and avoid being distracted by subsidiary points Grammar Describing experiences/events Grammar – range of verb forms, mixing verb forms Expressing opinion/agreeing disagreeing

STUDY CONTEXT

Classroom – pairs/individuals

ACTIVITIES

Discourse analysis – Identify core topic vocabulary and frequent grammar/ structure. Examine text structure. Self-study Classroom → self-study Classroom – groups Practice exercises on key grammatical structures Grammar practice activities Process writing – short descriptive text Intensive discussion activity – short opinion followed by reaction

MATERIALS/SOURCES

Pages from online messageboard/ blog on subject of learner interest.

2 4 4 4 3

Grammar practice material

Realia (e.g. film/books/music etc) Written interaction – managing interaction – ask for clarification – correct slips/errors Identify unknown language from context – Identify key points and ideas in a text on a familiar topic and avoid being distracted by subsidiary points 1 2 3 5 1 5 1 Lexis Discourse – connecting expressions Pragmatic – agreeing disagreeing/politeness conventions Reading – understanding main ideas All Lexis All Lexis Strategy – Identify key points and ideas in a text on a familiar topic and avoid being distracted by subsidiary points 5 All Classroom Home/Self-study Classroom Self-study with teacher support Classroom – whole class Classroom – whole class Classroom Fast writing/note passing Reading comprehension – work on identifying main points, recognising opinion. Self-study Classroom – pairs/individuals Classroom Mind-mapping topic lexis and collocations Review/practise basic discourse markers Analysis/discussion of conventions in online vs other discourse models Participate in online discussion Use search engine to find appropriate/ message board Prepare and deliver report/presentation on experiences with online discussion Identify topic and key content from extracted lexis Online texts Wordle word clouds Computer search engine Course book Article – “Netiquette” Texts from special interest magazines/websites Word-clouds

Simulation of online discussion – either on networked computers or pen-paper Possible teaching sequence, envisaged as extending over a number of lessons though could be compressed / reduced.

Networked or stand-alone computer – institutional website/ VLE

1 Introduction of topic – introducing message board/blog posting – identifying key lexis – finding appropriate site – analysing discourse features – analysing language features 2 Lexis and grammar – working on lexis and structure 3 Reading skills – text comprehension work 4 Writing skills – writing accurately and fluently – managing interaction

5 Extension and report – extending language work into the real world and reporting back (note: activities labelled 5 above could be alternatives for an extension activity or could complement each other, perhaps being used at different stages of the teaching sequence)

32 DOMAIN

Occupational Location: office Persons: management committee / potential donors / bank manager Summarise your case Responding to objections / follow up questions Spoken Interaction Q and A Organisation: corporation, bank, sponsorship donors Making a proposal Spoken Production Sustained monologue

SCENARIO: START UP

CONTEXT TASKS ACTIVITIES TEXTS

LEVEL

CAN-DOS* Can give a clear, prepared presentation, giving reasons in support of a product and giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options. Can take a series of follow up questions with a degree of fluency and spontaneity which pose no strain for either him/herself or the audience. Can account for and sustain own opinions by providing relevant explanations, arguments and comments. STRATEGIC

COMPETENCES

Plan what is to be said and the means to say it, considering the effect on the recipient/s. Use circumlocution and paraphrase to cover gaps in vocabulary and structure. Use stock phrases (e.g. “That’s a difficult question to answer”) to gain time whilst formulating what to say. Follow up what people say, relating contribution to those of others. PRAGMATIC Functional Discourse Explaining a rationale Developing an argument Giving precise information Responding to counterarguments Synthesizing, evaluating information Persuading Discourse Complex sentences Summarising your case Connecting words expressing cause and effect, contrast, etc. LINGUISTIC Grammatical Phonological Passive forms Conditional forms Complex noun phrases Collocation of intensifiers Lexical Various collocations Giving emphasis Intonation patterns

CRITERIA*

FLUENCY Can communicate spontaneously, often showing remarkable fluency, ease of expression and fairly even tempo in longer, complex stretches of speech. He/she can be hesitant as he/she searches for patterns and expressions but there are few noticeably long pauses.

COHERENCE Can respond appropriately to questions. RANGE Has a sufficient range of language to be able to give clear descriptions, express viewpoints and develop arguments without much conspicuous searching for words, using some complex sentence forms to do so.

Can use a limited number of linking expressions to mark clearly the relationships between ideas.

ACCURACY Has a clear, natural, pronunciation and intonation. * Taken and adapted from the CEFR. Overview & Implementation: Nareene Kaloyan

Shows a relatively high degree of grammatical control. Does not make mistakes which lead to misunderstanding.

SCENARIO IMPLEMENTATION

This scenario can be implemented in at least 3 ways leading up to one of the following: 1 Classroom activity. Simulating the popular TV programme Dragon’s Den. Each person/team presents their idea to the rest of the class who take the role of the panel of experts/investors. 2 Assessment task. A dossier and/or presentation to a panel of examiners e.g. the school’s centre manager, academic manager and a teacher. 3 Real task. Entering a competition to win some real money to realise the project. This is often done in sixth form or business colleges. The enabling activities below are presented in the order in which they were brainstormed. The teaching sequence will depend on the context. For the competition/ assessment task there may be no teaching involved. The students might receive some limited support or advice in a tutorial or two with their teacher.

COMPETENCES

Strategic: structuring an argument, using stock phrases to gain time

STUDY CONTEXT

Classroom Individual work Pairs / groups

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

Authentic listening to an extract from a persuasive argument. Two or three recognition activities, e.g. ticking off stock phrases used, analysis of argument structure/ development, etc. Follow up with practice (e.g. Q & A- where learners need to gain time to formulate their responses)

MATERIALS

A recording of a television/ radio programme (reality show, political, current affairs, etc.)

LINK TO CRITERIA

Can respond appropriately to questions.

Linguistic: collocation of intensifiers

Classroom Individual work Classroom Linguistic / phonological: giving emphasis, intonation patterns Pragmatic: summarising, synthesising, evaluating Linguistic: complex sentences, complex noun phrases Whole class Pairs Research at home Groups / pairs Classroom

Self-discovery activity, e.g. correcting incorrect collocations from a listening text, followed by written practice, e.g. enriching/expanding a text with intensifiers Discovery of phonological features, drilling and pair work practice Learners find examples of patented inventions/products with pictures and descriptions. Summarise key positive features to one another in groups Expanding simple sentences / deconstructing complex sentences. Raising awareness to formation of complex noun phrases, verb phrases and sentence structure. Learners practice making complex sentences which may be illogical in meaning whilst being grammatically correct and therefore coherent. Classroom Linguistic: passives review, connecting words to express cause and effect / sequencing Home Recognition. Mining a newspaper text for passive forms, connecting words. Controlled practice. At home, learners write a description of a process in which an everyday household product was made, developed etc. Pragmatic: persuading, giving precise information Linguistic: conditionals review, collocation of intensifiers Classroom Watching infomercials and drawing attention to language and techniques of persuasion. Learners role-play selling each other various products or they simulate a radio advertisement. Can vote for the product they were most persuaded to buy, analyse each other’s performance, give feedback.

TV programme / course book listening / live listening to teacher Course book or pronunciation book Research on internet, e.g. a US patents website None

Has a sufficient range of language to be able to give clear descriptions. Has a clear, natural, pronunciation and intonation.

Shows a relatively high degree of grammatical control.

News article (on business, finance, a particular product/ innovation)

Can use a limited number of linking expressions to mark clearly the relationships between ideas. Pictures of products Recordings of television infomercials Has a sufficient range of language to be able to give clear descriptions.

34 DOMAIN

Educational Persons: Tutors/ Lecturers/ Researchers / Fellow students Produce academic paper Writing an essay Notes, outline, essay Reading for information and argument Collect data Taking & making notes Articles, reports & other academic/ scientific texts Location: University / College Plan research Listening as a member of a live audience (lectures) Sustained monologue (Lectures)

SCENARIO: RESEARCH

CONTEXT TASKS ACTIVITIES TEXTS

LEVEL

CAN-DOS SOCIOLINGUISTIC Register STRATEGIC Can follow most lectures with relative ease, even when not clearly structured and when relationships are only implied and not signalled explicitly. Can take detailed notes during a lecture on topics in his/her field of interest, recording the information so accurately and so close to the original that the notes could also be useful to other people. Can understand in detail lengthy, complex texts likely to be encountered in academic life, identifying finer points of detail including attitudes and implied as well as stated opinion, provided he/she can reread difficult sections. Editing: Drafting and redrafting PRAGMATIC Functional Defining & describing in detail SOCIO-CULTURAL Knowledge of scientific contents Conventions of format & style of academic genres

COMPETENCES

Inferencing: Use contextual, grammatical and lexical cues to infer attitude and intentions in other authors. Planning: Prepare an outline, integrating points from different sources. Relate own contribution skilfully to those of other authors.

Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing info Developing an argument systematically Exemplifying Speculating and hypothesising about causes, consequences, etc

Can summarise long, demanding texts. Can write clear, wellstructured texts of complex subjects, underlining the relevant salient issues, integrating sub-themes, developing particular points expanding and supporting points of view at some length with subsidiary points, reasons and relevant examples, and rounding off with an appropriate conclusion.

CRITERIA

ACCURACY Consistently maintains a high degree of grammatical accuracy; errors are rare and difficult to spot. Spelling is accurate, apart from occasional slips of the pen. LINGUISTIC

Discourse

Paraphrasing & summarising Formal logical markers Complex sentences Addition, sequence & contrast (moreover, consequently . . . ) Grammatical Mixed conditionals All passives Modals in the past Lexical Topic-related collocations Greek/Latin derived technical words

COHESION

Can produce clear, well-structured texts, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices. Layout, paragraphing and punctuation are consistent and helpful. Can select an appropriate formulation from a broad range of language to express herself / himself clearly, without having to restrict what she/he wants to say. Can pass on detailed information reliably. Can qualify opinions and statements precisely.

RANGE

PRECISION

Orthograph

Greek/Latin derived technical words Abbreviations, acronyms & symbols

* From the CEFR Overview & Implementation: Angeles Ortega

REAL WORLD ACTIONS

Plan research

LEARNING ACTIONS

n■ Awareness-raising activity: Brainstorm DRAW steps and features n■ Listen to (10’-15’) lecture by teacher on DRAW and take notes n■ Compare notes and draw conclusions (pairs

LEARNING SPACE

Classroom Pairs groups whole class)

n■ Brainstorm ideas for improving oral reception and note-taking n■ Listening cues (nonverbal, prosodic, discourse markers, syntax), and practise n■ Note-taking cues (Linear: layout, headings, numbering, indentation, underlining, abbreviation,

Resources

Manuals Reference books Groups Whole class Listening exercises Note-taking exercises Notes templates Sample outlines symbols; Branching/Mind maps), and practise. Peer assess notes Data projector

Learn about Doing Research & Academic Writing (DRAW) conventions

Organise process Choose and focus topic State thesis Write outline

n■ Discuss possible shared topic(s) and different points of view n■ Choose common topic and individual viewpoint n■ Plan order (sequence, comparison, contrast) n■ Write topic/thesis sentence n■ Study samples of general and other types of outline

Write outline

n■ Review plagiarism and how to avoid it (paraphrasing, summarising, quoting, referencing)

Collect data

Find sources

n■ Listen to (15’-20’) lecture by teacher on evaluating sources and content, and take notes n■ Web-quest for more info on sources and referencing formats (BSI, APA, MLA)

Classroom Pairs Read about topic Listen to lectures on topic Take notes Make notes Copy quotes Take references Produce paper Write draft First editing Redraft Second editing Final version

n■ Reading comprehension and efficiency cues n■ Practise to improve reading efficiency (anticipation, reading speed, timed reading) n■ Practise to improve reading comprehension (markers, increase vocabulary range) n■ Read about topic (5 sources from books, journals, dissertations, other) and make notes,

Browsers Groups Whole class Self-access centre copy quotes, take references following formats. Practise quoting and referencing

n■ Listen to (45’- 60’) lecture on topic by guest lecturer / online and take notes n■ In pairs compare and improve notes n■ Rewrite outline on feedback from sources, peers and teacher n■ Analyse essays/papers for type text related format/discourse/syntax/lexis patterns n■ Practise sentence-clause structure & paragraphing (divide into paragraphs; expand paragraphs

General & subject encyclopaedias Academic publications Library Home Online/live lectures Reading exercises Reference skills exercises Data projector Classroom Pairs from topic sentences), paraphrasing, summarising (samples and exercises)

n■ Write rough draft following outline (synthesize, cite and personal thesis).

Topic sentences +

Sample essays Revising checklists Groups Whole class supporting points for Intro-Body-Conclusion. Peer check for logical gaps and general errors. Improve organization, sentence-clause structure, sub-themes, examples

n■ Write second draft on peer feedback. Enrich description (modifiers, specific lexis); Provide

Correction codes Advanced grammars Self-access centre Library Home transition (addition, sequence & contrast markers; formal logical markers); Adapt register (passives, modals, conditionals); Extend support (quotes, footnotes, endnotes, bibliographies) Self assess with revising checklist

n■ Type final version. Focus on accuracy (correction codes).

Check with dictionaries and advanced

Dictionaries Subject dictionaries Style Manuals E-mail communication Word processor E-mail grammars Teacher one-to-one feedback

n■ Brainstorm general and specific aspects to improve along the DRAW process

Appendix C Mapping Text Types

Produced by Brian North from analysis of CEFR descriptors: copyright withheld for a forthcoming publication.

A1 Written Sources

signs and notices directions technical instructions warnings on hazards regulations conditions safety simple A to B telephone everyday detailed complex detailed detailed details complex outside area directions messages announcements instructions conditions, warnings menus maps, tourist leaflets & posters* advertisements timetables reference lists (Yellow pages etc) webpages, catalogues brochures and leaflets guides forms, invoices correspondence: formal letters official documents technical texts (e.g. contracts) factual descriptions newspaper & magazine articles factual texts, articles and reports lengthy complex texts, reports etc. highly specialised sources argumentative texts reviews, editorials, commentaries narratives anecdotes, jokes fiction literature messages on postcards short text message/Twitter correspondence: informal letters personal descriptions short,simple feel, wish feel, wish literary simpler simplified standard conclusion visual too events events main point basic short short simple simple simple lectures, talks, presentations film shows, drama TV news reports TV interviews TV documentaries TV current affairs TV talk shows radio news radio documentaries wide range of radio broadcasts narratives recorded passages recorded audio materials * CEFR= simple informational material

A1 Spoken Sources

interlocutor

3rd party interaction discussions and debates technical discussions

topic

main points everyday

modified modified

complex complex complex

A to B main point main point

detailed distorted everyday complex

outline

essentials visual/action

nonstandard idiomatic idiomatic

events visual/action

main points

short, slow simpler standard

Appendix D Mapping Language Content

Produced from main project sources (descriptor analysis, analysis of CEFR-based syllabi, course books, examination content)

A1 Functions / Notions

Numbers Prices Telling the time Directions Greetings Giving personal information Describing habits and routines Describing people Describing things Requests Suggestions Advice Invitations Offers Arrangements/ -ing to meet people Obligation and necessity Describing places Describing past experiences & storytelling Describing feelings, emotion, attitudes Describing hopes and plans Giving precise information Expressing abstract ideas Expressing certainty, probability, doubt Generalising and qualifying Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing info Speculating, and hypothesing Expressing opinions Expressing shades of opinion Expressing Agreement / disagreement Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference Critiquing and reviewing Developing an argument Conceding a point Emphasizing a point, feeling, issue Defending a point of view Responding to counterarguments persuasively systematically hypothesising tentatively precisely

Discourse Functions

Initiating and closing conversation Checking understanding Managing interaction (interrupting, changing topic, resuming or continuing Taking the initiative in interaction Encouraging and inviting another speaker to continue, come in Interacting informally, reacting, expressing interest, sympathy, surprise

Discourse Markers

Connecting words, and, but, because Linkers: sequential – past time Connecting words expressing cause and effect, contrast etc Linkers: although, in spite of, despite Linking devices: logical markers Markers to structure informal spoken discourse Discourse markers to structure formal speech Markers to structure and signpost formal and informal speech and writing first, finally subsequently

Simple Verb Forms

To be Have got (British) Imperatives (+/- )

Questions

Questions forms Wh-questions in the past Complex question tags

Present

Simple Present Present Continuous

Past

Simple Past Past Continuous Used to Would expressing habit in the past Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Narrative Narrative Narrative Narrative Narrative Narrative Narrative Narrative Narrative

Narrative

Future

Prediction

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Present Perfect / Past Simple Present Perfect Continuous

Pronouns

Personal – subject

Possessives

Possessive adjectives Use of ‘s, s’ Possessive pronouns

Gerund & Infinitive

I’d like Gerunds to + infinitive (express purpose) Verb + to + infinitive

Prepositions and prepositional phrases

Common prepositions Prepositional phrases (time & movement) Prepositional phrases (place & time)

Conditionals

Zero and 1st conditional 2nd and 3rd conditional Mixed conditionals Wish/if only & regrets

Articles

Definite, indefinite Zero article with uncountable nouns Definite article with superlatives With countable and uncountable nouns With abstract nouns

Phrasal Verbs

Common phrasal verbs Extended phrasal verbs

splitting

Passives

Simple passive All passive forms

Determiners

Basic (e.g. any, some, a lot of) Wider range (e.g. all, none, not (any), enough, (a) few) Broad range (e.g. all the, most, both)

Other Verb Forms

Reported speech (range of tenses) Relative clauses

Adjectives

Common Demonstrative Ending –ed + – ing Collocation of adjective Comparative, superlative Comparisons with fewer and less

Modals: Can

Can/can’t Can/could

Modals: Possibility

Might, may Possibly, probably, perhaps Might, may, will, probably Must/can’t (deduction)

Adverbs

Adverbs of frequency Simple adverbs of place, manner and time Adverbial phrases of time, place & frequency, incl word order (Adjectives and ) adverbs Adverbial phrases of degree, extent, probability Comparative and superlative of adverbs Attitudinal adverbs Inversion (negative adverbials) Hardly..?

Modals: Obligation & Necessity

Must/mustn’t Have to Must/have to Should Ought to Need to/needn’t

Modals: Past

Should have/might have/etc Can’t have, needn’t have

Intensifiers

Very basic (very, really) Basic (quite so, a bit) v. Common Broader range of intensifiers such as too, enough

Nouns

Countable and uncountable There is/there are

Wide range such as extremely, much too Collocation of intensifiers

Lexis

Nationalities and countries Personal information Food and drink Things in the town, shops and shopping Travel and services vocab Verbs, basic Clothes Colours Dimensions Ways of travelling Objects and rooms Adjectives: personality, description, feelings Contrasting opinions – on the one hand … Summarising exponents; briefly, all in all, Collocation Colloquial language Approximating (vague language) Differentiating to choose the best in context Approximating (vague language) Eliminating false friends Formal and informal registers Idiomatic expressions

Appendix E Exponents for Language Content

Content given in italics was considered less “core” in the analysis

2 Functions/notions 3 Understanding and Using Numbers n We have three cats and one dog.

n My father is 45 years old. n There are 500 people in our village.

8 Giving personal information n My name is Carlos.

n I am from the north of China. n I live in Beirut. n I have two sisters and one brother.

4 Understanding and Using Prices n How much does the room cost? 45 Euros per night.

n The train ticket to York is 7 pounds

9 Describing habit and routines n My brother goes to work at 8 o’clock.

n I get the bus to college every day. n I always go swimming on Tuesdays.

50 (pence).

n I spend about 50 dollars a day.

46 Discourse markers 47 Connecting words (and, but, because) n She lives in Switzerland and she goes skiing a lot.

n■ I don’t like Indian food but I like Chinese. n■ I go to bed early because my job starts

5 Telling the time n What’s the time? A quarter to seven.

n Do you have the time please? n Can you tell me the time, please?

Topics

Family life Hobbies and pastimes Holidays Work and Jobs Shopping Leisure activities Education Film Books and literature News, lifestyles and current affairs Media Arts Scientific development Technical and legal language

It’s 9.45. (nine forty-five)

n The train leaves at three o’clock.

at 7.00. 55 Verb forms 56 To be (including questions and negatives) n■ We are from South America.

n■ No I’m not tired. n■ France is a wonderful country. n■ I am a psychology student. n■ Are you French? No I’m not.

6 Directions n The hotel is on the left.

n Go to the end of the street and

turn right.

n Where is the supermarket?

It’s straight ahead. 7 Greetings n Hi John, how are you today?

n Good evening, Mr Jones. n This is Mary. Pleased to meet you.

57 Have got (British) n■ Have you got any money? n■ I’ve got all of his CDs

n■ We’ve got lots of time.

58 Imperatives (+/-) n■ Sit down, please.

n■ Go away! n■ Don’t talk to the driver. n■ Don’t spend too much money.

73 Future 74 Going to n■ We are going to make a pizza this evening.

n■ They’re going to visit London tomorrow. n■ Are you going to study this weekend?

124 Pronouns 125 Simple personal n■ I bought a dictionary.

n■ They live in Newcastle. n■ Sorry, I dropped it..

n■ It starts at 6 o’clock. n■ They lived there for ten years. n■ My sister is coming on Tuesday.

134 Articles 135 Definite, indefinite n■ She has a dog, but I don’t have a pet.

n■ I’d like an apple juice, please. n■ Your jacket is on the chair. n■ I live by the sea.

59 Questions 60 Questions n■ Is she from Egypt?

n■ Do you like dancing? n■ What is your name? n■ Why are we waiting? n■ What time is it? n■ How much does it cost? n■ When did you arrive?

126 Possessives 127 Possessive adjectives n■ This is my seat.

n■ Is this your pen? n■ That’s our house.

85 I’d like n■ I’d like a cup of coffee.

n■ I’d like to go home.

86 Verb + -ing like/hate/love n■ I love swimming.

n■ I don’t like waiting for buses. n■ I hate being late. n■ I like sitting in the sun and doing nothing.

128 Possessive ‘s n■ It’s Mary’s turn to buy coffee.

n■ The girl’s hair was bright red. n■ This is the students’ room.

140 Determiners 141 Basic (e.g. any, some, a lot of) n■ I need a lot of sleep.

n■ Do you have any cheese? n■ I’d like some vegetables, please.

63 Present 64 Present simple n■ She eats fruit every day.

n■ We go to the beach on Sundays. n■ They live near Edinburgh.

103 Modals 104 Can/can’t (ability) n■ I can’t swim.

n■ He can speak Spanish, French and Italian. n■ She can play chess.

129 Possessive pronouns n■ This is my laptop.

n■ That is her coat. n■ No. It’s mine. n■ Is that their car?

144 Adjectives 145 Common n■ She is wearing a red skirt.

n■ That’s a beautiful phone.

65 Present continuous n■ Ibrahim is studying medicine at Bristol University.

n■ John’s working in France now. n■ It’s raining again.

105 Can/could (functional) n■ Can/could I use your phone?

n■ Can/could I have a retunr? n■ Can I help?

130 Prepositions and prepositional phrases 131 Prepositions, common n■ He is sitting at the table.

n■ We went to Sardinia last year. n■ He comes from Scotland

146 Demonstrative n■ This pizza is really good.

n■ What did that man say? n■ Those oranges look very nice. n■ These people want to talk to us.

66 Past 67 Past simple n■ After the meal we went to a club.

n■ She fell and broke her leg. n■ I lived in Paris for 6 months.

121 Nouns n■ How much/many and very common countable and uncountable

n■ How much money do you have? n■ How many sisters do you have? n■ Do you like cheese? n■ I bought an apple and some bread. n■ Mira has very short hair.

132 Prepositional phrases (time and movement) n■ The holidays begin in July.

n■ They like to play football in the evening. n■ On Tuesdays she goes to college.

149 Comparative, superlative n■ She’s taller than Michelle.

n■ I am better at writing. n■ Tom is the oldest in the class.

151 Adverbs 152 Adverbs of frequency n■ We always go shopping on Saturdays.

n■ We sometimes meet Susan here. n■ I never go to the gym after work.

68 Past simple (to be) n■ It was very good.

n■ I moved to Madrid when I was 15. n■ We were happy there.

133a Prepositions of place n■ Our shop is on the High Street.

n■ They live in Reading.

123 There is/there are n■ There’s a bank near the station.

n■ There are a lot of seats at the front. n■ Is there a supermarket near here?

133a Prepositions of time, including in/on/at n■ I’ll see you in December.

160 Intensifiers 161 Very basic (very, really) n■ She’s a very tall girl.

n■ John is a really good friend.

n■ I work in a factory. n■ They like shopping.

2 Functions/notions 9 Describing habits and routines n■ On Sundays I visit my mother.

n■ I phone my family at the weekend. n■ The director comes to our office n■ They are seeing Helen later tonight.

173 Clothes n■ You can’t wear jeans at work.

n■ I bought a new T‑shirt. n■ I don’t like wearing skirts or dresses.

166 Lexis 167 Nationalities and countries n■ Pedro is Spanish but he works in France.

n■ She comes from China but her husband

18 Obligations and necessity n■ We have to get home. Grandad is waiting for us.

n■ We must hurry. We are late.

I prefer jeans.

n■ My father wears a suit and tie to work. n■ Is it cotton? n■ I lost my new leather jacket.

every Tuesday. 10 Describing people n■ Marco has blue eyes.

n■ Ekaterina is tall and slim. n■ Mary has long blonde hair.

is English. 168 Personal information n■ She’s married and has three children.

n■ I am 26 years old, single and I work

in a bank.

n■ He’s an engineer.

174 Colours n■ My favourite colours are red and green.

n■ He always wears black. n■ The houses near the sea are all blue

11 Describing things n■ It’s green and it’s made of plastic.

n■ It’s small, round and made of rubber.

19 Describing places n■ Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland. It has lots of old buildings. It is famous for its castle and its architecture. Every year in summer it holds an international arts festival which brings performers and visitors from around the world. 20 Describing past experiences and storytelling n■ Last year I went to Spain for a walking holiday. Sometimes I stayed in local mountain hostels and sometimes I slept in my tent. One evening I was far from any village, so I camped at the edge of a forest beside a small river. I ate some food and watched the sun go down. I heard a small noise at the edge of the forest. I turned and saw two pairs of eyes. Wolves! 46 Discourse markers 48 Linkers: sequential – past time n■ First we went to Naples. We stayed there 5 days and visited Heracleum and then Pompeii. After that we went to Progida, but I didn’t like it. Finally we stayed a week in Capri. 55 Verb forms 58 Imperatives (+/-) n■ Somebody stop him!

n■ Push the bar. n■ Please don’t smoke in here. n■ Break the glass in an emergency.

169 Food and drink n■ I like fresh fruit for breakfast.

n■ Vegetables are good for you. n■ What kind of coffee do you want? n■ I have a cup of tea every morning. n■ I don’t like fish.

or pink. 175 Dimensions n■ My room is very small.

n■ It’s a long street. n■ Scottish mountains are not very high.

12 Requests n■ Can you give me that book, please?

n■ Can you open the window? n■ Could I have a glass of milk, please? n■ Could you pass the sugar, please?

170 Things in the town, shops and shopping n■ Where is the supermarket?

n■ How much does this cost? n■ Where is the nearest internet café? n■ Where can I buy a . . . ? n■ I’m looking for a bank/chemist.

176 Ways of travelling n■ My friends get the bus to work but I take the train.

n■ I usually fly to France, but sometimes

13 Suggestions n■ Shall we go home now?

n■ Let’s go to the cinema? n■ Why don’t we phone Jim?

I drive. 189 Topics 190 Family life 191 Hobbies and pastimes 192 Holidays 193 Work and jobs 194 Shopping 195 Leisure activities

14 Advice n■ You should ask the teacher.

n■ You could try the Internet

171 Travel and services vocabulary n■ Does this bus go to the town centre?

n■ I want to buy a phone. n■ Where is the train station?

15 Invitations n■ Would you like to come to my party?

n■ Do you fancy going to the club tonight?

172 Verbs, basic n■ He is a student.

n■ They live in Brighton.

16 Offers n■ Can I help you?

n■ Shall I carry your bag?

17 Arrangements/-ing to meet people n■ We are meeting John at 8 o’clock.

59 Questions 60 Questions n■ Did you pass your driving test?

n■ Have you seen my new car? n■ Is Sasha arriving today?

75 Present continuous for the future (arrangements) n■ Nareene’s playing basketball tonight.

n■ I’m seeing him at 11.00 this morning.

88 Verb + to + infinitive n■ She wants to go home now.

n■ I forgot to lock the door. n■ They hope to arrive at 9 o’clock.

n■ I must phone her tonight. It’s her

birthday. 113 Have to n■ Students have to fill in a form if they want to leave early.

n■ I have to go to Madrid tomorrow.

61 Wh-questions in the past n■ Where did she go to university?

n■ How did they travel? n■ When did it happen?

76 Future time (will & going to) n■ I’m going to see John on Saturday ( . . . already decided)

n■ I’ll tell him about the party ( . . . you are

89 Conditionals 90 Zero and first conditional n■ If I stay in the sun I get a headache.

n■ If I eat eggs I feel sick. n■ If I fail my exams, my father will be angry. n■ I’ll stay in if it rains this afternoon.

I’ve got a job interview. 115 Should n■ You should stay in and study tonight. You’ve got an exam on Friday.

n■ You shouldn’t drink so much cola.

deciding as you speak)

n■ A: I am going to lose my match.

63 Present 64 Present simple n■ Do you like British food?

n■ The plane lands at six. n■ I love this programme.

B: No you won’t. I’ll help you. 80 Present Perfect 81 Present perfect n■ He has lost his wallet.

n■ Have you got your results yet? n■ Have you ever been to Greece? n■ They’ve gone to Italy on holiday. n■ Have they come back form the

94 Phrasal Verbs 95 Phrasal verbs, common n■ He got up at 6 o’clock.

n■ Put your coat on, it’s raining. n■ The plane takes off in few minutes.

It’s bad for your teeth. 121 Nouns 122Countable and uncountable, much and many n■ She has eight chairs in her lounge.

n■ How much furniture does he have? n■ I need some help/advice. n■ Would you like a piece of cake/cup

65 Present continuous n■ I am staying with Hilary at the moment.

n■ What is he wearing?

103 Modals 105 Can/could n■ Could I use your computer? Yes. Of course you can.

n■ This could be England’s best chance. n■ Can I have some more spaghetti, please?

66 Past 67 Past simple n■ He gave me a nice present.

n■ She bought some flowers for her mother. n■ I began to play chess when I was 5.

supermarket?

n■ She hasn’t been to school this week. n■ I’ve known him for 5 years/since 2005.

of tea?

n■ I need as much information as possible.

84 Gerund and infinitive 86 Gerunds n■ Walking is the best exercise.

n■ He goes jogging every morning.

126 Possessives 128 Use of ‘s and s’ n■ I’ll meet you outside Mary’s house.

n■ That’s John’s car. n■ The children’s clothes are all dirty.

106 Modals: Possibility 107 Might, May n■ She might come. I don’t know.

n■ John may know the answer

68 Past continuous n■ I was living in Spain when I met her.

n■ It was raining, so we decided to

get a taxi. 69 Used to n■ She used to be a ballet dancer. n■ He used to wear glasses but now he uses contacts. 73 Future 74 Going to n■ He’s going to buy a car next year.

n■ She’s going to have an operation

86b Verb + -ing/infinitive (like / want – would like n■ I love playing tennis.

n■ I hate washing up. n■ I enjoy dancing n■ Would you like to go to the cinema? n■ I want another drink.

to your question. 108 Possibly, probably, perhaps n■ I’ll probably see you later.

n■ Lionel Messi is probably Argentina’s most

129 Possessive pronouns n■ That’s not our ball, it’s theirs.

n■ It always wags its tail when it’s happy. n■ Is Heather a friend of yours?

famous footballer.

n■ Perhaps she’s late.

87 To + infinitive (express purpose) n■ I go jogging to get fit. n■ They are going to Scotland to see the Loch Ness monster.

n■ I went to the post office to buy stamps.

111 Modals: Obligation & Necessity 112 Must/mustn’t n■ You must get to work on time.

n■ I must go to bed. I’m really tired. n■ You mustn’t smoke here.

130 Prepositions and prepositional phrases 132 Prepositions of time: on/at/in n■ He was born on Christmas Day.

n■ I’ll read the book during the holidays. n■ The train arrives at 17.15.

in October.

133 Prepositional phrases (place, time and movement) n■ He went inside the building.

n■ We walked along the beach. n■ They arrived at the station in the middle

149 Adjectives – comparative, – use of than n■ This book is more interesting than these ones.

n■ My sister is much older than me

166 Lexis 169 Food and drink n■ I love strawberries and cream.

n■ Let’s get some fish and chips.

178 Adjectives: personality, description, feelings n■ Pedro is a quiet and serious boy.

n■ She is tall, blonde and wears very

of the night. 134 Articles 138 With countable and uncountable nouns n■ She has blonde hair.

n■ I love pizza, but the pizzas at Gino’s

150 Adjectives – superlative, – use of definite article n■ The fastest mammal in the world is the cheetah.

n■ Maths is the most difficult subject for me.

170 Things in the town, shops and shopping n■ Keep left.

n■ Insert exact money. n■ Do you know where the post office is?

smart clothes.

n■ I am very happy with my new job,

but my boss is very strict. 189 Topics 191 Hobbies and pastimes 192 Holidays 193 Work and jobs 194 Shopping 195 Leisure activities 196 Education

I want to buy some stamps.

n■ Where can I buy some coffee beans?

are not very good.

n■ I’ve got bad news for you. n■ Everybody wants coffee.

151 Adverbs 152 Adverbs of frequency n■ Have you ever been to the United States?

n■ He often visits his family. n■ He usually stays here with us. n■ He always carries a bag. n■ She hardly ever leaves her room.

171 Travel and services vocabulary n■ A return ticket to Brighton, please.

n■ Can you tell me the way to IKEA? n■ What time do you close? n■ I’m looking for the bus station.

140 Determiners 141 Basic (e.g. any, some, a lot of) n■ I don’t have any money.

n■ He spends a lot of time in his garage. n■ Can I have some water, please?

142 Wider range (e.g. all, none, not (any), enough, (a) few) n■ I am going to have a party for a few friends.

n■ We don’t have enough eggs to make

153 Simple adverbs of place, manner and time n■ There’s water everywhere.

n■ He quickly opened the door. n■ I am going to London tomorrow.

177 Objects and rooms n■ The fruit is in a bowl in the dining room.

n■ The kitchen is the warmest room

in the house.

n■ The tools are in the garage.

our cake.

n■ None of my friends are going to the club.

154 Adverbial phrases of time, place and frequency including word order n■ He went home yesterday.

n■ They were here today.

144 Adjectives 146 Demonstrative n■ Those children over there are very noisy.

n■ These shoes are killing me. n■ He left for the city on 19th February.

160 Intensifiers 161 Very basic (very, really) n■ She was left very unhappy.

n■ I am really sorry for losing your book.

That night the volcano erupted. 147 Ending in ‘-ed’ and ‘-ing’ n■ The film was really boring.

n■ Her story was really amusing. n■ The journey was really exciting. n■ The crowd was already excited.

162 Basic (quite, so, a bit) n■ The water is quite cold.

n■ I am so happy with my new flat. n■ It is getting a bit cold now. I want

to go home.

2 Functions/ notions 19 Describing places n■ Cairo is the capital city of Egypt. It is on the banks of the River Nile. It has a population of more than 10 million people. Cairo has a rich history. The famous pyramids and the sphinx are located just outside the city. 20 Describing past experiences and storytelling n■ Last year we went to Thailand for our holidays. We visited many interesting places. I went scuba-diving while my boyfriend went on an elephant ride. We also tried lots of different kinds of food. We had a great time. 21 Describing feelings, emotions, attitudes n■ He felt a little nervous about the exam.

n■ I’m fed up with this British food. n■ We should all use public transport n■ Well, actually . . . n■ Well not really. n■ I’m sorry but I think you’re wrong. n■ I see what you mean but . . .

41 Checking understanding From speaker’s point of view

n■ Is that clear? n■ Do you follow me? n■ Do you know what I mean? n■ Do you understand?

46 Discourse Markers 48 Linkers: sequential – past time (later) n■ He finished the e-mail and then went out for a while.

n■ Later, he looked at it again, to see

if he had missed anything important.

n■ After that, he changed the text a little. n■ Finally he spellchecked it and sent it.

33 Talking about films and books n■ Meryl Streep was brilliant.

n■ It was difficult to follow. n■ It was set in Chicago. n■ It was about a woman who went

From listeners point of view

n■ I’m sorry, did you say “. . .”? n■ Is this what you are saying? . . . n■ I’m not sure I understand. Are you

saying that . . . ?

n■ Do you mean . . . ?

49 Connecting words expressing cause and effect, contrast etc. n■ On the other hand, we could stay at home and watch television.

n■ However, this depends on the number

around the world.

n■ If you like action movies you will like

this one

n■ It had a happy ending. n■ I think you should read this book. n■ I liked this book because . . .

42 Managing interaction (interrupting, changing topic, resuming or continuing) Interrupting

n■ Sorry, to interrupt you but . . . n■ I have a question. n■ Could I interrupt here? n■ Do you mind if I say something? n■ Could I just say something? n■ Sorry, I just wanted to say . . .

of people you’ve invited.

n■ Therefore, it is cheaper to take the bus.

52 Markers to structure informal spoken discourse n■ Right.

n■ Really? n■ Well, anyway . . . n■ Oh I know. n■ Yes, I suppose so. n■ I know how you feel n■ You know, I don’t like her either.

39 Discourse Functions n■ 40 Initiating and closing conversation Initiating:

n■ Hi! My name’s Paula. What’s your name? n■ Excuse me- can I talk to you for

as much as possible.

n■ I’m sorry to hear that.

Changing the topic

n■ Anyway, . . . n■ By the way, there’s something else I

29 Expressing opinions n■ I think England will win the World Cup

n■ I don’t think he is old enough

a minute?

n■ Excuse me, please. Have you got

59 Questions 61 Wh-questions in the past n■ Who did you see at the party?

n■ How long have you been studying

a minute?

n■ Excuse me, please. I wonder if you could

wanted to tell you. Resuming a conversation

n■ Anyway, . . . n■ Anyway, what was I saying? n■ What were we talking about? n■ To get back to what I was saying . . .

to get married.

n■ In my opinion, it’s too expensive.

help me.

n■ Let me introduce myself. n■ Guess what! n■ You will never believe what

English?

n■ Why did you get the tattoo? n■ What happened then? n■ What have you been doing since you

31 Expressing agreement/ disagreement n■ I think so too.

n■ You’re right n■ Exactly! n■ Yes, I agree. n■ I think you are absolutely right. n■ So do/am I. n■ Neither do I.

I saw yesterday Closing:

n■ It’s been nice talking to you. Bye. n■ I’m sorry. I’ve got to go now. n■ Must go – see you later. n■ See you later. Take care.

Continuing

n■ Anyway, . . . n■ So, as I was saying . . . n■ Okay, . . .

left school? 62 Complex question tags n■ He hasn’t come home yet, has he?

n■ He built the house himself, didn’t he?

55 Verb forms 66 Past 67 Simple past n■ When he fell, he cut his leg

n■ I went to London on Sunday and

n■ They had already paid by the time

89 Conditionals 90 Zero and first conditional n■ If you heat water, it boils.

n■ If you press this button, it switches off. n■ If we don’t tell him, he’ll be angry. n■ What will he do if he doesn’t find a job? n■ We’ll go swimming if the water is

106 Modals: Possibility 109 Might, may, will, probably n■ I might be half an hour late.

n■ Petra will probably be late too.

I asked for the bill.

n■ Ahmed had just arrived.

73 Future 76 Future time (will & going to) (Prediction) n■ If they continue to play this badly, Liverpool are going to lose the cup.

n■ Spurs will probably win the league

She’s usually late.

n■ We may go to Egypt this year. n■ Are you going to have a party in your

someone stole my camera.

n■ They had so much fun that they forgot

to check what the time was. 68 Past continuous n■ It happened while I was watching television yesterday.

n■ I was coming home from work when

warm enough. 91 Second and third conditional n■ If I won the lottery I’d buy a big house in the countryside.

n■ What would you do if they asked you

new flat? I don’t know. I may, I may not. 110 Must/can’t (deduction) n■ Mohamed can’t be at home yet, I saw him leave just a few minutes ago.

n■ I don’t believe it. It can’t be true. n■ That must be Brigitte’s father. She told

this season.

n■ Look at those clouds. It’s going to rain. n■ He will pass his driving test eventually.

the car in front of me suddenly stopped.

n■ Car “A” was coming from a side street.

The driver wanted to turn left. The other car was coming along the road. It was moving really fast. The driver of car “A” didn’t see it. They hit each other. 69 Used to n■ They used to live in Portugal.

n■ I used to have a really nice wallet,

77 Future continuous n■ I’ll be working late tomorrow.

n■ He’ll be arriving on the last train

to work in America?

n■ I would have told Jim, if I had seen him. n■ If we hadn’t gone out last night, we

me he was coming.

n■ You’ve just walked all the way from

from Manchester. 80 Present Perfect 81Present perfect n■ She’s just gone to the shop.

n■ I’ve started but I haven’t finished it yet. n■ He still hasn’t arrived.

wouldn’t have missed them.

n■ My girlfriend would have killed me

Oxford Street. You must be tired. 111 Modals: Obligation & Necessity 114 Must/have to n■ I really must lose some weight before the holiday.

n■ Passengers must not put their feet

if I’d forgotten her birthday. 94 Phrasal Verbs 96 Extended phrasal verbs n■ He turned the jobs down.

n■ They made the story up. n■ She switched the light on.

but I lost it.

n■ When I went to primary school I used

on the seats.

n■ I can’t come tonight because I have

to walk to school with a friend, but my mother used to collect me in the afternoons.

n■ I never used /didn’t use to like olives,

82 Present perfect, past simple n■ I’ve been to Thailand twice. I went there in 2003 and 2007. Have you been there?

n■ He’s won every match so far. n■ He won every tournament last year. n■ I’ve had about 9 cars. n■ We went out together for six months. n■ When I was at school I studied French

to meet my cousin.

n■ I have to make an appointment this

97 Passives 98 Simple passive

n■ The lock was broken. n■ The trees were damaged by the storm. n■ Rome wasn’t built in a day.

but now I love them. 70 Would expressing habit in the past n■ Every night I would tell my little brother a story and he would fall asleep in the middle.

n■ During the summer holiday we would

week. It hurts! 116 Ought to n■ I really ought to spend less money.

n■ You ought to inform the police. n■ My parents will be worried. I ought

100 Other verb forms 101 Reported speech (range of tenses) n■ She said she liked brown bread.

n■ He asked if she wanted to go home. n■ John told them the machine

to phone. 117 Need to n■ I need to get back to work.

n■ Do you really need to wear such

get up early and go to the beach. 71 Past perfect n■ The train had left when I got to the station.

n■ When I got home, Joan had already

for about 5 years.

n■ I have studied French since I was

14 years old. 83 Present perfect continuous n■ How long have you been playing tennis?

n■ It’s been raining non-stop for two

was working.

n■ She explained that she’d lost my

old jeans?

n■ Do we need to buy tickets before we

cooked supper.

telephone number.

get on the train?

days now.

n■ He’s been working on the report 54

all morning.

118 Modals: Past 119 Should have, might have/etc. n■ We had a great time in Crete. You should have come with us.

n■ The letter should have come yesterday. n■ They might have arrived already. n■ She might have gone home.

155 (Adjectives and) adverbs n■ She’s a good singer. She sings really well.

n■ The instructions were not very clear. n■ My mother has been working too

n■ The maths test was unbelievably easy. n■ That’s much too difficult for a B1 test.

189 Topics 195 Leisure activities 196 Education 197 Film 198 Books and literature 199 News, lifestyles and current affairs 200 Media

166 Lexis 170 Things in the town, shops and shopping n■ It fits really well but do you think it suits me?

n■ I need to get some toothpaste from

hard recently.

n■ This cheese is a bit hard.

134 Articles 138 With countable and uncountable nouns n■ Don’t go in the water. It’s freezing.

n■ I would like milk in my tea. n■ He was wearing black jeans.

156 Adverbial phrases of degree/extent, probability n■ The water was extremely cold.

n■ He speaks very quickly. n■ He speaks too quickly. n■ There will probably be some speeches

the chemist’s in the shopping mall.

n■ Can you hold on while I get a magazine

from this newsagent? 171 Travel and services vocabulary n■ I’m sorry, we don’t accept cheques. Do you have a debit or credit card?

n■ You need to check in at least two hours

after the meal.

n■ He’ll definitely win.

140 Determiners 143 Broad range (e.g. all the, most, both) n■ All the seats are taken.

n■ We haven’t got enough paper

157 Comparative and superlative form of adverbs n■ Paula got ready more quickly than the others.

n■ Jenson Button was faster in practice. n■ I’m afraid he’s getting worse. n■ The person who most frequently got

before departure.

n■ The gate number will be announced

for everyone.

n■ Several people are waiting.

on the monitor in the departure lounge. 179 Contrasting opinions (on the one hand…) n■ On the one hand, he is good with people. On the other hand he does not think before he speaks.

n■ Even though he earns very little

144 Adjectives 148 Collocation of adjective n■ I didn’t want to wake him from his deep sleep.

n■ The student produced some really

ill was Angela.

n■ Stig worked the hardest. n■ Marie did the worst in the exam. n■ Paulo did the best at maths.

he is always very generous.

n■ Mind you, he is still very fit.

high quality work.

n■ We couldn’t get to work because

160 Intensifiers 163 Broader range of intensifiers (such as too, so enough) n■ He’s a really good driver.

n■ Do we have enough cake to go round? n■ He came back so suddenly. n■ She’s so intelligent it’s scary. n■ The ball was just too fast. n■ He’s quite good at science.

of the heavy snow.

n■ There was a strong smell of coffee

181 Collocation n■ I’m going to take a quick shower.

n■ Its midnight but I still feel wide awake. n■ There’s a good chance he’ll be late.

in the room. 151 Adverbs 154 Adverbial phrases of time, place and frequency including word order n■ We usually go abroad in summer.

n■ I have never been abroad. n■ He stayed behind yesterday. n■ They often play upstairs.

182 Colloquial language n■ That’s a really cool top you’re wearing.

n■ My boss is nice but he talks really posh. n■ The kids had a brilliant time at the zoo.

164 Wide range (such as extremely, much too) n■ We did quite well.

n■ I’ve got a terribly difficult decision

to make.

56 57

2 Functions/ notions 20 Describing experiences n■ I was walking the dog in the park when I heard a loud crash. I looked in the direction of the noise and saw that a huge tree had fallen down. There were some people screaming and calling for help and some children were trapped under one of the fallen branches. 21 Describing feelings and emotions n■ He was furious when he saw that his new bicycle had been damaged.

n■ She screamed in anger at how stupid n■ He was born in a little village in the

North East of Estonia on the 22nd of October, 1928.

n■ My degree was in economics,

27 Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing information n■ To sum up, the government will need to cut spending for the next five years.

n■ All in all, it was a miserable performance. n■ To be fair, it was his own fault for parking

n■ Fantastic idea! n■ Brilliant! n■ Great! n■ Whatever. n■ That’s ridiculous! n■ How’s that possible? n■ Really? n■ No way! I don’t believe it.

specialising in finance.

n■ You need to place the pizza dough in

where he shouldn’t have.

n■ In short, they were better than us

a warm bowl, cover it with a cloth or place it somewhere warm, leave it to rise for 30 minutes or until it doubles in size. 24 Expressing abstract ideas n■ Corruption is widespread in that part of the world.

n■ There is little respect for human rights

at promoting their ideas 28 Speculating n■ I wonder if John will be going to the party.

n■ If she got the nomination, she could

33 Critiquing and reviewing n■ I think that ‘Treasure Island’ is still popular with children even though the language is rather dated.

n■ In spite of its popularity I feel that ‘The

her brother had been.

n■ Heather was delighted with her shot

during war time.

n■ Education is the way out of poverty

probably win if she gathered enough support from the community.

n■ What do you think would happen if they

Beach’ is a very overrated book which appeals mainly to gap-year students.

n■ The film was a bit disappointing, really. n■ The best part was when ….. n■ It was really good when ….

and her face glowed with pride.

n■ Why should we suffer just because

for many young people. 25 Expressing certainty, probability, doubt n■ I’m absolutely certain it’s going to rain.

n■ It’s impossible to get him out of bed

did discover oil there?

n■ What if Teresa hadn’t turned up?

our neighbours like loud parties?

n■ I don’t think it’s right for passengers

29 Expressing opinions n■ If I were you, I’d just say no.

n■ From her point of view, we have to do

to put their feet on the seats. 22 Describing hopes and plans n■ I am having a meeting with my boss on Friday.

n■ How are you going to get to France? n■ How long are you going to Jamaica for?

before 10 o’clock.

n■ He’s probably gone to the library. n■ We’re definitely not going to Spain

this as soon as possible

n■ The way I see it is that you’ll have to

34 Developing an argument n■ To begin with it’s a bigger problem than you think.

n■ As far as I am concerned this has

this year.

n■ Are you sure we will arrive in time?

study very hard.

n■ I feel we should do it. n■ I really don’t think it’s a good idea.

nothing to do with the issue.

n■ The way I see it, the family is more

I’d love to see the photos when you get back.

n■ I’ll call you soon. n■ I am going to go around the world

26 Generalising and qualifying n■ On the whole I think it is a good idea.

n■ Generally speaking, the teachers are

important.

n■ That’s the reason I don’t want to work

31 Expressing agreement/ disagreement n■ That’s just what I was thinking.

n■ You know, that’s exactly what I think. n■ I totally agree. n■ That’s a good point. n■ No I’m afraid I can’t agree with you there. n■ You can’t be serious! n■ Don’t be silly! n■ That’s ridiculous.

there anymore. In academic discourse style:

n■ One reason why… n■ Another argument for/against . . . is . . . n■ X maintains that . . . n■ Y states that . . . n■ It could be argued/asserted that . . . n■ In conclusion . . .

very helpful

n■ More often than not he shops in the

when I’ve saved enough money

n■ I hope to get a job in Australia next year. n■ I’ve always wanted to visit the Taj Mahal.

High Street.

n■ Taking into consideration the cost of

travel, you might not want to buy a flat so far away.

n■ We’ll stay for a week or two, depending

23 Giving precise information n■ I’ll meet you at 2pm in the children’s section of Waterstones in Oxford Street.

n■ In my job I mainly have to deal

on the cost.

n■ Provided that there is no rain, the

concert will go ahead as planned.

with clients, particularly arranging and following up on orders.

32 Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference n■ Why ask me?

n■ Thank gooodness

39 Discourse Functions 41 Checking understanding From speaker’s point of view n■ Are you following me?

n■ Let me know if you have any questions? n■ Does that make sense?

n■ Pilar, would you like to kick off? n■ Shall we begin?

Invitation in one‑to‑one interaction

n■ Don’t you agree? n■ Is that okay with you? n■ How about you? n■ What do you reckon/think?

n■ Consequently, he moved to London

to be closer to his family. 50 Linkers: although, in spite of, despite n■ In spite of her illness during the course, she managed to qualify successfully.

n■ Despite the rain we all had a great time. n■ Although I was very young at the time,

From listener’s point of view

n■ If I understood/understand you correctly,

During the meeting

n■ Jenny, can tell us how the

there are no planes at all on Saturday.

n■ Do you mean I can’t talk to the boss

Human Resources reorganisation is coming along?

n■ How does that affect your

right now?

n■ Are you trying to say you don’t want

Invitation in group interaction

n■ What do you think, Mario? n■ Let’s hear what Gabriella has to say. n■ James might have something to say

to go out with me anymore?

n■ Let me see whether I’ve understood

department, Rosa?

n■ Let’s move on, shall we?

I remember what happened quite clearly. 53 Discourse markers to structure formal speech n■ To begin, I would like to introduce my colleagues.

n■ Furthermore, I believe that the best way

you correctly.

n■ So what you‘re really saying is . . . n■ Am I right in assuming . . .

Keeping interaction participants on topic

n■ We don’t have time to go into that matter

on this.

n■ Fiona knows a lot about this. n■ Hey, you did something like that,

right now.

n■ Let’s get back to the issue under

42 Managing interaction (interrupting, changing topic, resuming or continuing) Interrupting

n■ Actually, . . . n■ I’m sorry but . . . n■ Just a minute! n■ Yes, I know, but . . . ! n■ Hang on! n■ Hold on! n■ Changing the topic n■ Oh, by the way . . . n■ That reminds me . . . n■ This has nothing to do with what we are

discussion, shall we?

n■ hat’s another topic, really. n■ Can we keep to the point, please. n■ Let’s not get distracted. n■ Taking initiative in non-control situation n■ I’d like to say a few words here. n■ Yes, I think I can contribute to this point. n■ My expertise in this area might help

didn’t you? 45 Interacting informally, reacting, expressing interest, sympathy, surprise n■ Wow, that’s fantastic.

n■ Really? Tell me more. n■ Tell me all about it. n■ I don’t believe it! n■ Oh wow! n■ Oh you poor thing. n■ That’s awful. What a shame!

forward is to provide more training.

n■ Moreover, the idea that depression can

only be cured by medication is now being challenged.

n■ Consequently, we have to be prepared

for a fall in profits next year.

n■ Regarding our position on nuclear

power, that has not changed.

n■ Additionally, we will also provide support

to clarify the situation.

n■ Perhaps, I could say something here.

throughout the process.

n■ In conclusion, we have agreed to give

talking about but . . .

n■ On another subject.. n■ Talking about holidays, did you know that

44 Encouraging and inviting another speaker to continue, come in. To continue

n■ Carry on. n■ Go on. n■ Really? n■ Mmm…mmm…. n■ Don’t stop. n■ Tell me more… n■ What makes you say that? n■ What makes you think that? n■ I’m all ears. n■ I’m listening.

46 Discourse Markers 48 Linkers: sequential – past time (subsequently) n■ Subsequently, he went on to be one of our best salesmen.

n■ Following this he decided to leave

£3,000 to the charity. 55 Verb forms 67 Simple past (narrative) n■ To help pay for his keep and to help his family, Andrew, who was still only 15 years old, began working ten-hour days at a Kensington hotel washing dishes and cleaning the kitchen. He earned just 6 pounds per week. The harsh working conditions and the cruelty of the kitchen staff had a strong influence on his later political outlook, and informed his work when he began his literary career, particularly the novel that made him famous, ‘Working Boy’. 68 Past continuous (narrative) n■ Antonio was walking away from the crowd when the trouble started. He was

I’m off to Florida next week?

n■ Before I forget . . .

the country. 49 Connecting words expressing cause and effect, contrast etc. n■ I know it would be good fun to watch the late-night film. Nevertheless, I think we should all get an early night before the big event tomorrow.

n■ I would like to tell you more. However,

Resuming

n■ Anyway, I was telling you about John’s

party . . .

n■ To get back to what I was saying . . .

43 Taking the initiative in interaction Control and delegation at start

n■ Andre, would you like begin?

that is as much as I am allowed to reveal at this time.

trying to get home but the buses were not running. He was just crossing the bridge to safety when he heard the sound of breaking glass. He was telling himself not to get involved when a bottle smashed right beside him. 69 Used to (narrative) n■ We used to play at the park at the edge of the town. 70 Would expressing habit in the past n■ Every autumn we would steal apples from their garden. We would eat the sour fruit and come home holding our stomachs. 71 Past perfect n■ When I’d climbed to the top of the hill, I looked back down and saw something I hadn’t seen before.

n■ He had broken the vase when he

n■ Will you be using the car tomorrow?

tomorrow.

n■ She wished she hadn’t hurt his feelings.

78 Future perfect n■ I’d better go and collect the girls. They’ll have finished school by now.

n■ I’ll call you at six. Will you have arrived

to be compulsory, has now been dropped from the syllabus.

n■ She told us all about her new boyfriend,

94 Phrasal Verbs 96 Extended phrasal verb n■ Let’s splash out on a bottle of champagne.

n■ Watching that programme has put me

whom none of us knew anything about.

n■ They ran quickly through the streets,

by then?

n■ She won’t have left by then.

all of which were covered in a thick blanket of snow. 118 Modals 119 Modals of Deduction and Speculation n■ You shouldn’t have read her journal. It should be private.

n■ You should have asked her earlier.

79 Future perfect continuous n■ Julia will have been studying Economics for 5 years when she graduates next year.

n■ You’ll have been travelling for 4 days

off chicken.

n■ I’ll take you up on that offer.

97 Passives 99 All passive forms n■ I’m being eaten alive by these mosquitoes.

n■ I wasn’t told about the new rules. n■ I thought that I was being followed. n■ Did you think that you were being

when you get to Bangkok. You’d better book a hotel and have a couple of days rest. 80 Present Perfect 83 Present perfect continuous n■ You’ve been spending a lot of time on the Internet recently.

n■ They’ve been working very hard to get

It’s too late now.

n■ He shouldn’t have any problem doing

such a simple task. (Assumption)

n■ The plane should have arrived by

now. (Assumption)

n■ I knew we might have to pay to get in. n■ You shouldn’t have shouted at him.

criticised?

n■ The new treatment for malaria has been

had come in through the window.

n■ He had had a terrible day up until that

found to be very effective. 100 Other verb forms 101 Reported speech (range of tenses) n■ She said she’d been waiting for ages.

n■ I knew we’d be late. n■ She thought she could do it all herself. n■ They reported that the volcano might

He might have hit you.

n■ The weather could have been better

point. 72 Past perfect continuous n■ I was tired. I’d been working for sixteen hours.

n■ They had been driving so fast that the

building completed on time.

n■ Honestly, we haven’t been wasting

but we still had a good time.

n■ You could have told me!

our time.

n■ Have you been seeing Julie behind

my back? 89 Conditionals 92 Mixed conditionals n■ If I had studied harder, I’d be at university now.

n■ If I’d got that job I applied for I’d be

police had difficulty stopping them.

n■ Had they been waiting long?

120 Modals: can’t have, needn’t have n■ It can’t have been John you saw, because he was with me.

n■ What can he have done with the keys?

erupt at any time.

n■ They said it should be fun. n■ I told her I had to go.

73 Future 76 Future time (will & going to) (Prediction) n■ You will succeed where I have failed.

n■ Here comes the bus now. We aren’t

He can’t have lost them again.

n■ You needn’t have bothered getting

here on time. He’s always late. 134 Articles 139 With abstract nouns n■ History tended to be uninteresting when I was at school.

n■ The early history of Scotland is full

working in Istanbul.

n■ I would have driven you to the match

going to be late after all.

n■ Don’t worry. He’ll be here on time.

if I didn’t have so much work.

n■ If I wasn’t working in July, I would have

102 Relative clauses n■ I’ve lost the books that I borrowed from the library.

n■ Where is the man that sells second-hand

77 Future continuous (Prediction) n■ This time next year, I’ll be working in Japan and earning good money.

n■ I’ll be visiting my mum on Thursday.

suggested we go camping in France. 93 Wish n■ I wish I was rich.

n■ I wish today wasn’t Monday. n■ I wish I wasn’t going into hospital

records?

n■ The children he played with thought

of betrayal.

n■ Happiness in marriage is something

he was much younger.

n■ This is my cousin Verena , who teaches

you have to work at.

n■ Education is not compulsory in many

Can you come another time?

music.

n■ Shelly and Byron’s poetry, which used

developing countries.

n■ The education I received was first‑rate. n■ Charity begins at home.

n■ The story has been told many times

before. Nonetheless, it is still a warning to us all.

n■ Some students continue to live with their

2 Functions/ notions 21 Expressing attitudes and feelings precisely n■ Well it would be all right if they came out and said it, but I have a bit of a problem with . . .

n■ I don’t really feel comfortable with . . . n■ I couldn’t care less whether . . . or not. n■ I’m afraid this is something I feel quite

151 Adverbs 155 Adjectives and adverbs n■ He scored a direct hit.

n■ The train goes direct to London without

parents. However, I prefer to be independent. 180 Summarising exponents (briefly, all in all . . . ) n■ In a word, it was a disaster.

n■ We felt that the idea was in general

27 Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing information n■ In a nutshell, it was the headmaster who had to take responsibility.

n■ To cut a long story short, he ended

even stopping at York.

n■ There’s no such thing as a free lunch. n■ Feel free to use it whenever you want. n■ He went straight to work. n■ Next draw a straight line across the top

up sleeping on my floor.

n■ All things considered, I think we’ve made

the best decision.

n■ Another way of putting this would be

a good one; the more we spend on advertising the higher our sales will be.

n■ To sum up, if we can’t make more money

strongly about.

n■ Cristina became a vegetarian and her

to say . . .

n■ To recap on what has been said

of the paper. 158 Attitudinal adverbs n■ Frankly, I couldn’t care less

n■ Clearly, he was in the wrong. n■ Apparently, he was in line for promotion. n■ Fortunately, he had a spare pair of shoes

some people will have to lose their jobs 181 Collocation n■ I’d prefer a dry wine.

n■ The resort has a range of luxury

father had rather mixed feelings about this.

n■ Michael felt completely devastated.

so far, . . . 28 Speculating and hypothesising about causes, consequences etc. n■ Supposing he had missed his train?

n■ If the pound did drop to parity with the

accommodation to offer.

n■ He’s a very heavy smoker. n■ I’m retaking the exam next week.

Somebody had deliberately sabotaged his research but he did not know who could do such a thing.

n■ When I reached the summit of the

with him. 160 Intensifiers 165 Collocation of intensifiers n■ After working all day and all night he was totally exhausted.

n■ He was absolutely horrified when

euro, Britain might be better off in the long run.

n■ Well if we don’t do something about the

182 Colloquial language n■ She’s just been dumped by her boyfriend.

n■ There’s no hurry. Let’s just chill out for

he realised what he had done.

n■ She’s completely hopeless when

an hour or two.

n■ I can’t be bothered with the hassle. n■ She fell and landed on her bum.

mountain I felt a great burden had been lifted from my shoulders. My childhood dream had finally come true. Looking down into the valleys far below I felt a sense of pride in my achievement. I wanted to shout out loud from the top of the world. 25 Expressing certainty, probability, doubt n■ It is highly likely that the airport will be closed again tomorrow.

n■ No doubt he’ll bring his dog as usual. n■ There’s bound to be trouble at

oil spill, there could be a lot more fallout than just dead fish. I mean, the water could be polluted for decades.

n■ If you’d arrived on time, we would

probably have missed the traffic.

n■ If she didn’t get so excited, she might

it comes to housework.

n■ I am entirely satisfied that he followed

get more work done. 29 Expressing opinions tentatively, hedging n■ I assume you’ll be going home for Christmas.

n■ Am I right to think you’re responsible? n■ It’s supposed to be good. n■ I’m just not so sure, it could be okay. n■ Maybe she is the best person for the job. n■ I should think he’ll be delighted with

the correct procedure. 166 Lexis 179 Contrasting opinions (on the one hand . . . ) n■ The weather forecast is good. Nevertheless, you always need to be careful in the mountains.

n■ In spite of his age, he is still goes

189 Topics 196 Education 197 Film 198 Books and literature 199 News, lifestyles and current affairs 200 Media 201 Arts

the meeting.

n■ Is that settled, then? Yes. It’s settled. n■ It looks as if she’s going to be late. n■ Surely, you don’t think it was my fault?

camping in the wild.

the surprise.

n■ It could well be the best solution.

30 Expressing shades of opinion and certainty n■ There’s no doubt about the fact that there is going to be inflation.

n■ No, I’m absolutely sure. I mean look

n■ What are you trying to say? n■ Absolutely! n■ I don’t believe it. n■ That’s amazing! n■ Oh, you poor thing. n■ You can say that again!

n■ There are several reasons for this: one . .

n■ He’s not Roger Federer but he is a very

. , two . . . , and finally . . .

n■ The main reason for this . . . is/may be . . . n■ Some people might argue that . . .

good tennis player. 37 Defending a point of view persuasively n■ I know this may not be a popular conclusion, but it seems to me we have to face (facts/ the fact that . . . )

n■ I do appreciate that what I proposed

at the figure for X.

n■ I may be wrong, but I think higher

However . . .

n■ Opponents of this idea try to suggest

inflation is almost certain.

n■ I have a feeling there may be

that . . . However . . .

n■ It’s clear that . . . n■ No one would dispute that . . . n■ It is generally accepted that . . . n■ All the evidence/data indicates/suggests

a problem here.

n■ I suppose that could be an option. n■ I rather doubt that he’ll come. n■ It’s not something I feel strongly about n■ Well one option/possibility might be

33 Critiquing and reviewing n■ The (report) highlights some important issues but it does not, to my mind, get to the bottom of the problem.

n■ It’s an excellent summary, but I think

may be expensive/painful/a surprise to some people, but I really am convinced the evidence shows we need to . . .

n■ I recognise that this may . . . , but . . . n■ But one should not lose sight of the fact

it would be improved by a deeper consideration of X.

n■ The (report) sets out to do X, and it does

that . . .

n■ Thus to conclude, the central issues are .

that . . .

n■ But surely one still needs to take X into

to go earlier.

n■ I really think that the people who produce

. . /the key point is . . .

n■ In conclusion, before we . . . we need

account 38 Responding to counterarguments n■ What you say may be true in some contexts, however in this case….

n■ You may be right, but I still think

our food should not be exploited. But the problem is that sometimes fair trade goods are more than double the price. When this is the case I tend to buy the cheaper product. I am not proud of this, but I am sure there are many other people exactly like me.

n■ I thought the meeting was a missed

parts of this well, but it seems to me to lack . . .

n■ The good/best thing about (the report) is

to . . . 35 Conceding a point n■ I see what you mean, but . . .

n■ I take your point. I agree we need . . . /

that it is so concise. It really hits the nail o n the head.

n■ Well, it starts well, but then after x pages/

that . . ..

n■ Whilst it may indeed be true that . . . ,

in the section on X, I had the impression that it . . .

n■ The plot involves the disappearance

It’s certainly true that . . .

n■ I have to admit that . . . n■ It is true that . . . n■ Though I hate to say it, I think you are

I still think . . .

n■ There is no evidence to show that …. n■ On the contrary, . . . n■ I think you have misunderstood the point

opportunity to actually do something good for a change. But I know that when it comes to environmental issues, governments tend to talk a lot and make grand promises, and then go back and carry on just the same as before. If they really wanted to make a difference they wouldn’t just set so-called ‘green objectives’ but would pass laws which would have an immediate impact on the environment.. 32 Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference n■ To be honest, I simply don’t care.

n■ Why bother? n■ It’s not such a big issue. n■ I don’t really mind/have an opinion,

of a sacred sword and introduces us to various levels of castle intrigue. Stephenson weaves his usual magic by giving us snippets of information here and there, now from the royal chambers, now from the castle kitchens. The master of gothic science fiction has provided us with a real page-turner. The only criticism that might be levelled here is that the author assumes that the reader is already familiar with characters and the world they inhabit. To get the most out of this book one needs to have read the previous books in the series. 34 Developing an argument systematically n■ It is frequently argued that . . . , however

n■ X is clearly a topic of concern to many

right that . . .

n■ That may be true, but . . .

I was making . . .

n■ I can see where you are coming from

36 Emphasizing a point, feeling, issue n■ The main point I’d like to emphasize here is the fact that parents have an important role to play in a child’s education

n■ 75% of those interviewed said that

but there are problems with your analysis of the situation.

n■ In some circumstances, I would agree

with you entirely, but in this case . . .

n■ Even so, he still has a long way to go

public transport was not as safe. Yes, 75% think public transport is now more dangerous.

n■ After turning the whole house upside-

before he is suitable management material.

n■ No matter how you look at it, he made

down, the police found nothing. Absolutely nothing.

a mistake.

n■ All the same, she deserves another

chance.

one way or the other.

people nowadays

66 67

46 Discourse Markers 54a Markers to structure and signpost informal speech and writing n■ We’ve a bit more money coming in than we had last year. Mind you, we’ll still need to be careful with the heating bills.

n■ He’d spent all his money without

55 Verb forms 66 Narrative tenses for experiences, including passive 67 Simple past (narrative) n■ I went home that evening in a very sombre mood. I tried to relax. I made myself a cup of coffee and turned on the television. But I just could not get the incident out of my mind. The more I thought about things, the more certain I was that something just didn’t make sense. I decided to go back over everything the next day. 68 Past continuous (narrative) n■ They were late as usual, hoping the guests would be a little late. Miriam was still in the kitchen preparing enormous bowls of salad. Her father was tidying away all his papers which were usually scattered over every available space in the dining room. John was keeping a lookout at the front gate, kicking pebbles along the path. 69 Used to (narrative) n■ That bit of the coastline used to be much less busy than it is these days. Lisa and her brothers loved exploring the coves and beaches for miles in both directions. They used to get up really early, run down the rocky path that led to Shell Bay and go for a swim before breakfast. Yes, those days were fun.

n■ I had a proper tricycle when I was

n■ In the summer we went to Devon for

n■ This time next year I’ll be sun bathing

realising. So, he couldn’t afford a taxi and had to walk home.

n■ Then guess what happened? n■ On top of that his girlfriend was really

years. My Dad would ask us to navigate. It was a way of keeping us quiet. We would watch out for named pubs and read the road signs. Usually we counted cars too. I would count VWs; my more sophisticated brother counted Jags. I would usually win. 71 Past perfect (narrative) n■ When he returned to the UK things were very different. Maria had given up her job in the library and gone back to university. Reza had finally left home and had moved in with a rather odd group of postgrads who had very strict house rules about everything from the storage of food to when guests were allowed to visit. Brigitte seemed to have completely disappeared. Just six months before they had been inseparable. Although he had known that it couldn’t last, it surprised him just how quickly things had changed. 72 Past perfect continuous (narrative)

n■ Whoever it had been must have had

on my yacht in Antibes. I’ll be mixing with celebrities from all over the world. I’ll be driving a look-at-me car and going to fancy restaurants.

n■ At the speed things are moving, the case

will have expired before it is brought to court.

n■ At the end of next year, I’ll have been

working here for 5 years! 89 Conditionals 92 Mixed conditionals in the past, present and future n■ If she had taken her studies more seriously last year, she’d have more job opportunities now.

n■ If Lola had given me the information

angry with him. 54b Markers to structure and signpost formal speech and writing – especially logical markers n■ The pound is not as strong as it was two years ago. Moreover, the cost of flights has gone up . . .

n■ Profits are likely to fall this year.

earlier, she’d be coming with us on holiday.

n■ If I were rich, I would have bought that

Consequently, we need to prepare our shareholders for some bad news.

n■ He was warned many times about the

painting we saw yesterday.

n■ If Nareene didn’t come with us

dangers of mountain climbing in winter. Nevertheless, he continued to tackle some of the toughest peaks.

n■ Despite the clear danger that was

pointed out to him, he insisted on continuing so he is at least partly responsible for what happened.

n■ The cost of fuel has gone up. Therefore

a key. So if his parents had been visiting their friends in Lyon, and his sister had been out celebrating the end of term with her boyfriend, then there was only one person who would have been able to get into the house that night. 76 Futures (revision) n■ My brother and his girlfriend are getting married in August. They’re not going to go on honeymoon. They’re going to do up the flat they bought with the money they’ll save. They’ll probably have some kind of reception or party for the wedding but I don’t think it will be a very grand affair.

n■ Oh no. Another goal for United! Barça

to Glastonbury, everyone would be disappointed. 93 Wish/if only & regrets n■ I wish I’d studied a bit harder.

n■ You wish you’d kept your mouth shut,

don’t you?

n■ If only he’d take more care of his health. n■ If only I had behaved a bit better,

it is hardly surprising that there has been an increase in the use of public transport.

n■ Whereas that is the case in Brazil, in

Columbia it is more a question of . . .

n■ Certainly the car is here to stay, but the

a small child. It had a boot and I used to keep all sorts of toys in it. We used to go all over the place, using the trike as a mobile base.

n■ 70 Would expressing habit in the past

she might have given me a chance.

n■ If only the sun would come out!

94 Phrasal Verbs 96 Extended phrasal verbs (splitting) n■ The policeman broke the fight up very quickly.

n■ She talked me into going to her parents’

question is to what extent it will be the same concept of car.

n■ The policy was correct is so far as it was

(narrative)

n■ My grandmother used to live by the

applied; the problem is that it wasn’t applied systematically.

seaside and we would go there every Easter. My Dad would drive, my mother would navigate and we would sit in the back fighting.

is going to lose.

n■ I just got a phone call from Raoul. He’s

place for the weekend.

n■ I can’t make anything out; it’s really dark. n■ She knew that her mother had put John

in a taxi. He’s going to get here in about five minutes.

up to it.

68 69

97 Passives 99 Passive forms, all n■ He’ll be given a warning.

n■ You’ll be being transferred to your new

166 Lexis 181 Collocations, e.g. n■ It’s there in black and white.

n■ He was in excruciating pain. n■ The suspense is palpable. n■ I did physics at university. n■ The situation is untenable. n■ It’s a no go area.

job tomorrow.

n■ The seats will all have been taken by

186 Eliminating false friends, e.g. n■ In the chemistry class they performed an interesting experiment (as opposed to experience which is French for experiment)

n■ Different languages = different false

the time we get there!

n■ He’s going to be given an award. n■ He ought to be sacked for behaviour

friends 187 Formal and informal registers, e.g. n■ Mr. John Wilson passed away peacefully at his home in Nottingham last week.

n■ John Wilson died in his sleep last week n■ John kicked the bucket a few days back.

like that.

n■ Having been beaten so many times,

182 Colloquial language, e.g. n■ I am absolutely knackered.

n■ She was gobsmacked when he turned

he decided to fight back.

n■ He might have been hurt.

up at the party.

n■ The whole thing was a cock-up from

118 Modals in the past n■ You shouldn’t have told her. She’ll be very upset.

n■ I should have warned him about the

beginning to end.

n■ He tried to flog me an old banger.

188 Idiomatic expressions, e.g. n■ I wish I could remember her name. It’s on the tip of my tongue.

n■ Everybody wants work with Marion.

traffic, but I forgot.

n■ You might have told me it was her

183 Approximating (vague language), e.g. n■ There will be about 30 odd people – well 30 to 40.

n■ I think he an accountant or something

She really is the flavour of the month.

n■ If you want a shoulder to cry on,

I’ll always be here for you. 189 Topics 198 Books and literature 199 News, lifestyles and current affairs 200 Media 201 Arts 202 Scientific development 203 Technical and legal language

birthday. I felt embarrassed I didn’t take a present.

n■ He can’t have got my message.

like that.

n■ The book is sort of similar to his first one. n■ Can you pass me the thingummyjig for

He would never be this late.

n■ You needn’t have bought any potatoes.

taking nails out?

n■ All the painting stuff is in the garage.

We had some.

n■ I don’t think anyone could have done

anything. He had decided.

n■ Things might have turned out differently,

if she had asked first. 151 Adverbs 159 Inversion (negative adverbials) n■ Little did I know that he had already left the company.

184 Differentiated use of vocabulary, e.g. n■ She was really upset when she failed her exams. I think she is still in shock.

n■ It’s not that I don’t like her; I detest her. n■ It’s really good. It’s concise, focused,

readable.

n■ I wouldn’t say she’s antisocial, just

a bit shy.

n■ It wasn’t bad, just a bit disappointing.

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Foreword

Acknowledgements

Contents

1 The CEFR

2 Aims of the Project

3 Project Procedure

Grammar

4 Project Products

5 CEFR-based Scenarios

(as enabling objectives).

Resources

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