The past few decades have seen increasing interest in emotion research. Although much remains to be learned, agreement is beginning to emerge regarding the way emotion should be viewed. Emotions provide a unique source of information for individuals about their environment, which informs and shapes their thoughts, actions, and subsequent feelings, and there is a growing view that emotion information can be used more or less intelligently. A notion central to emotional intelligence theory is that individuals differ in their ability to perceive, understand and use emotional information, and this ability significantly contributes to intellectual and emotional well-being and growth.
Emotional intelligence as a concept has prospered, in part, because of the increasing personal importance of emotion management for individuals in modern society. Indeed, researchers have commonly claimed that emotional intelligence predicts important educational and occupational criteria beyond that predicted by general intellectual ability (e. g. Elias & Weissberg, 2000; Fisher & Ashkansy, 2000; Fox & Spector, 2000; Goleman, 1995; Mehrabian, 2000; Saarni, 1999, Scherer, 1997).
Furthermore, the chief proponents of emotional intelligence appear to have made strides towards understanding its nature, components, determinants, effect, developmental track, and modes of modification (Matthews, Zeidner & Roberts, 2001) Since Goleman’s (1995) best-seller, Emotional Intelligence, popularized the concept, researchers have used an extensive number of attributes or abilities drawn from psychology to define emotional intelligence. Goleman’s book contains definitions and descriptions of what he identifies as the five key components of emotional intelligence: knowing emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationships.
The Research paper on Relationship between Emotional Intelligence Abilities and Team Processes
Clarke’s article seeks to use the emotional intelligence ability model to establish emotional intelligence’s significance as part of individual difference among team members and if it can affect team effectiveness. It is a report on a research conducted using the ability model of emotional intelligence to identify the relationship between EI and the transitional, action-based and inter-personal ...
Goleman attributes varying sets of personality attributes to each component, the final effect being that most of personality is covered by his definitions. Towards the end of his book, he claims “there is an old-fashioned word for the body of skills that emotional intelligence represents: character” (p. 285).
As such, variations in the manner with which people think, feel, and act are ostensibly ascribed to differences in “disposition” and “style.” The notions of disposition and style however do not accommodate for the flexibility with which people interact with the world, according to Mischel (1990).
In fact, claims by proponents of a trait-based theory of emotional intelligence have yet to produce any serious supportive evidence (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998; Epstein, 1998; Mayer & Cobb, 2000; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso. 2000).
Mischel argues that people’s experiences of the world are selectively constructed, and that the range of potential thoughts, feelings and behaviour’s that people engage within and across situations are largely determined by information-processing competencies. Emotional intelligence researchers focus on disposition and style arguably needs therefore to be augmented by a deeper understanding of these competencies if we are to better understand why people behave and respond to affective information in the ways that they do. Exploration of such competencies, when it has deviated from general intelligence, has centered mainly on social problem-solving skills and abilities that are often broadly grouped under the concept of social intelligence. social intelligence involves understanding how to convince others to do things, how to manage power relationships, and how to manage power relationships, for example (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2000).
The Essay on Behavioural, emotional and social difficulties
Describe the range of behavioural, emotional and social difficulties that children and young people may experience and how they can affect speech, language and communication development The special education needs (SEN) code of practice describes BESD as a learning difficulty where children and young people demonstrate features of emotional and behavioural difficulties such as: Being withdrawn or ...
Given the rich affective content of social situations and problems, researchers such as Salovey and Mayer (1990) believe that emotional competencies are fundamental to social intelligence. In addition, some investigators (e. g. , Showers and Kling, 1996) believe that people’s self-knowledge and inner life is fundamentally influenced by emotional competencies.
In this context, emotional intelligence seems to be more focused than social intelligence. Emotional intelligence relates directly to emotional phenomena, and can similarly be applied to a wide variety of emotional situations and problems entrenched within both interpersonal and intra personal experience (Epstein, 1998; Saarni, 1997; Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
There is much criticism from proponents of traditional notions of IQ however, as to the validity and relevance of emotional intelligence (where did those refs go? ? ).
The modern interest in emotional intelligence stems from a dialectic in the field of human abilities research that resonates with the same tones as that of the centuries long reason vs. emotion debate. The conflict between reason and emotion The tension between exclusively cognitive views of what it means to be intelligent and broader ones that include a positive role for the emotions can be traced back many centuries.
For centuries, efforts to understand the nature of cognition have been prioritized over efforts to understand the nature of emotion. Although the philosophical forefathers of psychology have been concerned with the nature of emotion since Socrates (469-399 B. C. ), the primary focus has been the pursuit of reason.
Aristotle (384-322 B. C. ) argued that human intellect is “the highest thing in us, and the objects that it apprehends are the highest things that can be known” (1976, p. 328).
The importance given to analytic intelligence up to the present day is testament to the enduring popularity of this notion. As well, with few exceptions prior to 19 th century, emotion was branded as a threat to reason, and inferior to cognition.
The Report on Emotions and Emotional Intelligence
... social adaptness.” John Mayer and Peter Salovey (1995)- “Emotional intelligence may be defined as the capacity to reason with emotion in four areas: to perceive emotion, ... on these, we can understand one’s emotional intelligence as an ability helpful in knowing, feeling and judging emotion in close cooperation with one’s thinking ...
The stoic philosophers of ancient Greece argued that the idiosyncratic nature of emotion rendered it incapable of contributing to insight and wisdom. Similar views continued to dominate academic thinking into the Renaissance period of 16 th and 17 th centuries of Europe. Descartes (1595-1650) argued that an emotion is one type of “passion”, where the passions are distinguished from “clear cognition”, and render judgment “confused and obscure” (1649/1989).
Kant (1724-1804) further reinforced the distinction between reason on the one hand, and emotions, moods and desires, which he termed “the inclinations”, on the other. He dismissed the inclinations as inessential to reason at best and intrusive and disruptive at worst (1793/1953).
Later however, philosophers belonging to the Romantic movement of Europe’s late 18 th and early 19 th century began to argue that logic alone could not deliver the breadth of insights that were possible when empathy and emotion-guided intuition were incorporated into their thinking (Solomon, 2000).
This shift in thinking is often attributed to the philosophy of David Hume. Hume (1739/1948) argued that reason was in essence a tool of emotion. In his view, the sole function of reason was to interpret the world in terms of facts in order to form inferences useful in achieving the agendas set by emotion. Empirical evidence as to the functional purpose of emotion was only established however, with the publication of Darwin’s The expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872/1965).
Darwin’s research revealed that emotion gives rise to adaptive behaviour’s that most species on the planet depend upon for survival, such as when fear generates flight, or when lust or love generates procreation.
As well, he found that emotion confers a survival advantage upon a species, such that it gives rise to a communication system whereby emotions such as fear can be communicated to others, thereby alerting them to a potential threat. Nonetheless, many psychologists of the early and mid 20 th century held to the view that intellect and emotion had opposing purposes (e. g. Schaffer, Gilmer, & Schoen, 1940; Woodworth, 1940), where logical decision-making and accurate information interpretation were deemed to result from intellect, while impulsive decision-making and misinterpretation of information were deemed to result from emotion.
The Essay on Emotional Ability or Emotional Intelligence
Emotional ability or emotional intelligence is the ability to assess, identify and control the emotions of oneself. It is also the ability to recognize the impact of your own emotions upon your behavior and be aware of the emotions of others around you (Rosete, & Ciracohhi, 2001). This is not always an easy task. It is a skill you have to work at constantly. Combine these sentences to make a ...
The roots of intelligence research were thus heavily oriented towards an analytic conception, where a rational response to a given situation was judged as intelligent, and an emotional response unintelligent. Emotion within reason The earliest notion that an emotional response can be an intelligent response is attributed by Bar-On (2000), Gardner (1983), and Goleman (1995) to Thorndike’s (1920) social intelligence construct. Thorndike’s proposed a theory of intelligence that divided an individuals mental capacities into three parts: abstract-scholastic intelligence – the ability to understand and manage ideas; mechanical- intelligence – the ability to understand and manipulate concrete objects, and; social (practical) intelligence – the ability to understand and manage people, and act wisely in social contexts. Standardized measures of social intelligence were developed from this definition in the 1930 s, where the manner and accuracy with which people make social judgments was the focus.
The research polarized by the 1950 s however, into two traditions, an intelligence tradition focused on person perception abilities, and a social psychology tradition focused on the study of social influences that determined person perception. As well, although much interest and effort was applied to conceptualizing and measuring social intelligence, the construct proved extremely elusive. Researchers found it particularly difficult to select or develop criteria that discriminated between general and social intelligence, and consequently validate experimental scales (Kihlstrom & Cantor, 2000).
Cronbach’s (1960) frequently cited conclusion that social intelligence was unlikely to be defined or able to be measured continued to fuel the pursuit of a singular analytic intelligence until the 1980 s. Around this time, Sternberg (1985) contested the absence of creative and practical aspects of intelligence in mental ability research, arguing that traditional definitions of intelligence were far too narrow.
The Research paper on Socially Constructed Intelligence Privilege Social
Advances In Artificial Intelligence Advances In Artificial Intelligence Essay, Research Paper Advances in AI With advances in technology many researchers have become captivated with the pursuit of Artificial Intelligence. Numerous fields of study have tried to contribute their knowledge in order to create intelligence. However, years of research have thus far been unable to create human ...
In a similar vein, Gardner (1983) proposed a theory of multiple intelligences, one of which was intra personal intelligence. This notion of intelligence emphasized one’s access to inner feelings, the ability to identify and understand them, to express them, and to use them as a guide for behaviour. Sternberg (2000) also identified numerous criticisms in the intelligence literature which suggested that there were considerable differences in the definitions of intelligence held by psychologists, particularly between cultures. In summing up the conflict between reason and emotion throughout Western history, Payne (1986) argued that persons with strong reason had prevailed while persons with strong emotion had been branded mentally ill, and institutionalized to suppress emotionality. Payne proposed that many of the problems facing society today were the direct result of emotional ignorance: depression, addiction, illness, religious conflict, violence and war. He further suggested that humans have perhaps tried too hard to ‘civilize’ themselves, trying to deny their their emotional nature along the way.
A decade later, Hernstein and Murray’s (1994) book, The Bell Curve, was published with the intention of cementing the central position of analytic intelligence, revealing evidence of its genetically transmitted properties. Contrary to this intention however, their book revived debate about the degree to which environmental circumstances affect intelligence and whether traditional conceptions of intelligence were defined too narrowly. Their book emphasised the notion that the population was normally distributed in intelligence, and that intelligence was hard to change. Some people fell into the low and high ranges of intelligence, while most people fell in the middle. The authors contented that low intelligence accounted for the poverty and joblessness of some groups in society, and that high intelligence accounted for the wealth and career success of others. Intellectual differences between gender, religious, ethnic and racial groups were also reported.
Unsurprisingly, the non egalitarian nature of their research findings prompted a proliferation of research and media publications exhorting ways of being intelligent and successful other than those stipulated by traditional intelligence theory. Emotional intelligence: The rapprochement of reason and emotion Emotional intelligence emerged to encapsulate such notions, extending on the works of Thorndike (1920), Sternberg (1985), and Gardner (1983).
The Term Paper on Personality Psychology and Introverts
Our lives are shaped as profoundly by personality as by gender or race. And the single most important aspect of personality – the “north and south of temperament”, as the scientist JD Higley puts it – is where we fall on the introvert-extrovert spectrum. Our place on this continuum influences our choice of friends and mates, and how we make conversation, resolve differences, and show ...
As well, unlike the traditional conceptualization of IQ, proponents of the theory suggested that it might also be learned and developed over one’s lifetime. It was therefore attributed it with egalitarian qualities that were part of the key to its rise in popularity.
Goleman for instance, claimed in rebuttal to The Bell Curve that emotional intelligence “can be as powerful, and at times more powerful, than IQ”, and that “crucial emotional competencies can indeed be learned” (Goleman, 1995, p. 34).
In reply, critics argued that the popularity of emotional intelligence as a replacement for general IQ would surmount to a future for intelligence theory where reason and critical thinking mattered little. Great concern was also raised with the lack of empirical research supporting the bold claims about emotional intelligence (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998).
The first empirical model of emotional intelligence was formulated in this climate by Salovey & Mayer (1990).
Their model described emotional intelligence as an intelligence in the traditional sense.
That is, as a set of conceptually related abilities pertaining to emotions and the processing of emotional information that are part of and contribute to logical thought and general intelligence. Originally conceived in terms of three core components (appraisal and expression, regulation, and utilization) their theoretical model was revised in lieu of subsequent empirical exploration, and grew to encompass four components: Emotional perception and expression, emotional facilitation of thought, emotional understanding, and emotional management (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Salovey, Mayer & Caruso, 1999).
In short, their model can be interpreted as measuring inter and intra personal interactions that integrate emotion and thought. Their conception has been strengthened by recent neuro scientific research which suggests that emotional responses are a crucial part of rational decision making, and that emotion and cognition are more integrated than previously thought (Damasio, 1995; Le Doux, 1998).
The competing models of emotional intelligence that followed Salovey, Mayer & Caruso’s work share considerable overlap in both their theoretical content and structure (Bar-On, 1997; Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Schutte, Malouff, Hall, Haggerty, Cooper, Golden & Dornheim 1998).
These have been labeled as mixed models because they typically comprise a mixture of abilities, and emotion-related personality traits and dispositions (e.
g. optimism, self-awareness, self-esteem) that have otherwise been described as potential correlates rather than elements of the construct itself (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2000).
Mayer, Salovey and Caruso’s (1997) ability model is arguably one of the most theoretically advanced, and while they make a strong case for the superiority of an ability model of emotional intelligence, there has been little consensus amongst researchers regarding how best to conceptualize and measure the construct. Bibliography A ssh, S.
D. , & Byers, E. S. (1996) Understanding the co-occurrence of marital distress and depression in women. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 13, 537-552. Aristotle.
(1976) Ethics (j. A. K. Thomson, Trans. ).
London: Penguin Books.
Arvey, R. D. and Campion, J. E. (1982) The employment interview: A summary and review of recent research. Personnel Psychology, 35, 281-322.
Arvey, R. W. , Rent, G. L.
, & Watson, T. W. (1998).
Emotionality and job performance: Implications for personnel selection. In G. R.
Ferris (Ed. ), Research in personnel and human resources management. (Vol. 16, pp. 103-147).
Stamford, CT: JAI Press.
Ashworth, B. E, & Humphrey, R. H. (1995) Emotion in the workplace: A reappraisal. Human Relations, 48, 97-125. A yoko, O.
B. , Callan, V. , & Harte l, . C.
E. (July 2002) Conflict, bullying and emotions: an examination of conflict events as antecedents to bullying, emotions and counterproductive behaviour’s in the workplace, The Third Conference on Emotions and Organizational Life. The University of Queensland. Gold Coast, Qld. Bagby, R. M.
, Parker, J. D. , & Taylor, G. J. (1994).
The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale-1. Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38. 23-32.
Bahn son, C. B. (1981).
Stress and cancer: The state of the art. Psychosomatics, 22, 207-220.
Barlow, D. H. , & Durand, V. M. (1999).
Abnormal Psychology (2 nd ed).
Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing company. Bar-On, R. (1997).
Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory. Toronto: ON: Multi-Health Systems.
Bar-On, R. (2000).
Emotional and social intelligence: Insights from the emotional quotient inventory (EQ-I).
In R. Bar-On & J.
D. A. Parker (Eds. ), Handbook of emotional intelligence (pp.
363-388).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Baron, R. A. (1990) Countering the effects of destructive criticism: The relative efficacy of four interventions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 235-245.
Beck, A. T. , Steer, R. A. , & Brown, G.
K. (1996).
BDI-II manual (2 nd ed. ) San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Bell, M. (1984) Teachings of the heart.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 252, 2684. Benet-Mart ” inez, V. , & John, O. P. (1998).
Los Cinco Grandes across cultures and ethnic groups: Multi trait multi method analyses of the Big Five in Spanish and English.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 729-750. Cameron, L. D. , & Nicholls, G.
(1998).
Expression of stressful experiences through writing: Effects of a self-regulation manipulation for pessimists and optimists. Health Psychology, 17, 84-92. Hardy, R. L. & G.
H. Dobbins (1986) Affect and appraisal accuracy: Liking as an integral dimension in evaluating performance. Journal of applied psychology, 71, 672-678. Carver, S.
C. (1998) Resilience and thriving: Issues, models, and linkages. Journal of social issues, 54 (2), 245-266. Cassidy, J. , Parke, R. D.
, Butko vsky, L. , & Braungart, J. M. (1992).
Family-peer connections: The roles of emotional expressiveness within the family and children’s understanding of emotions.
Child Development, 63, 603-618. Chern iss, C. , & Goleman, D. (2001).
The emotionally intelligent workplace: how to select for, measure, and improve emotional intelligence individuals, groups, and organizations. San Francisco, CA, US: Jossey-Bass Ciarrochi, J. , Chan, A. , & Bajar, J. (2001).
Measuring emotional intelligence in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 31 (7), 1105-1119. Ciarrochi, J. , Chan, A. , & Caputi, P. (2000).
A critical evaluation of the emotional intelligence construct. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 539-561. Ciarrochi, J. , Chan, A.
, & Caputi, P. (2001) Measuring emotional intelligence. In J. Ciarrochi, J. For gas, & J. D.
Mayer (eds), Emotional intelligence in everyday life: A scientific inquiry (pp 25-45).
Philadelphia, PA, US: Psychology Press. Ciarrochi, J. , Deane, F.
P. , & Anderson, S. (2002).
Emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between stress and mental health.
Personality and Individual Differences, 32 I, 197-209. Cobb, S. , & Karl, S. V. (1977).
Termination: The consequences of job loss, HEW Publication No. (NIOSH) 77-224, Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Cooper, C. L.
& Faragher, E. B. (1993).
Psychosocial stress and breast cancer: The interrelationship between stress events, coping strategies, and personality.
Psychological Medicine, 23, 653-662. Costa, P. T. & McCrae, R. R. (1985).
Hypochondriasis, neuroticism, and aging: When are somatic complaints unfounded? American Psychologist, 40, 19-28. Costa, P. T. & McCrae, R.
R. (1987).
Neuroticism, somatic complaints, and disease: Is the bark worse than the bite? Journal of Personality, 55, 299-316. Crawford, J. R.
& Henry, J. D. (2003).
The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS): Normative data and latent structure in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 111-131. Cronbach, L.
J. (1960).
Essentials of psychological testing. New York: Harper and Row. Cze piel, J.
A. , Solomon, M. R. , & Surprenant, C. F.
(Eds. ).
(1985).
The service counter. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Damasio, A.
R. (1995).
Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York: Avon. Darwin, C. (1965).
The expression of the emotions in man and animals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1872) Davies, M. , Stankov, L. , & Roberts, R. D.
(1998).
Emotional intelligence: In search of an elusive construct. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 989-1015 Diamond, M. A. (1984).
Bureaucracy as externalized self-system: A view from the psychological interior.
Administration & Society, 16, 195-214. Diener. E. , Emmons, R. , Larsen, R. , & Griffin, S.
(1985).
The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49 (1), 71-75. Donahue, E.
, Robins, R. , Roberts, B. , & Oliver, J. (1993).
The Divided Self: Concurrent and Longitudinal Effects of Psychological Adjustment and Social Roles on Self-Concept Differentiation.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64 (5), 834-846. Jacobs, P. (1998) Negotiating for success. Infoworld, December Issue, 131-132 Descartes, R. (1989).
On the passions of the soul.
(S. Vvv, Trans. ).
Indianapolis, IN: Hackett (Original work published 1649).
Eder, R. W.
& Ferris, G. R. (1989).
The employment interview: Theory, research, and practice. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Elias, M.
J. & Weissberg, R. (2000).
Primary intervention: Eduactional approaches to enhance social and emotional learning. Journal of School Health, 70, 186-190. Epstein, S.
(1998) Constructive thinking: The key to emotional intelligence. New York: Harper & Row. Farber, B. A.
(1989).
Psychological-mindedness: can there be too much of a good thing? . Psychotherapy, 26, 210-217. Faragher, E.
B. , & Cooper, C. L. (1990) Type A stress prone behavior and breast cancer. Psychological Medicine, 20, 663-670. Fergusson, E.
, Matthews, G. , & Cox, T. (1999).
The appraisal of life events scale: Reliability and validity. British Journal of Health Psychology, 4, 97-116.
Fleet, G. L. , Blank stein, K. R. , Pliner, P. , & Bat or, C.
Impression-management and self-deception components of appraised emotional experience. British Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 67-77. Fisher, C. D. , & Ashkanasy, N.
M. (2000).
The emerging role of emotions in work life: An introduction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 123-129. Fox, S.
, & Spector, P. E. (2000) Relations of emotional intelligence, practical intelligence, general intelligence, and trait with interview outcomes: It’s not just ‘G’. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 203-220. Funk, S. C.
& Houston, B. K. (1987).
A critical analysis of the Hardiness Scale’s validity and utility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 572-578. Gardner, H.
(1983).
Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1998).
Working with emotional intelligence. London: Bloomsbury. Goleman, D. (1995).
Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Goldberg, L. R. (1999).
A broad-bandwidth, public domain, personality inventory measuring the lower-level facets of several five-factor models.
In I. Mervielde, I. Deary, F. De Fruyt, & F. Ostendorf (Eds. ), Personality Psychology in Europe, Vol.
7 (pp. 7-28).
Tilburg, The Netherlands: Tilburg University Press. Goldman, S. L. , Kraemer, D.
T. , & Salovey, P. (1996).
Beliefs about mood moderate the relationship of stress to illness and symptom reporting.
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 41, 115-128. Greenberg, M. A. , & Stone, A. A. (1992).
Emotional disclosure about traumas and its relation to health: Effects of previous disclosure and trauma severity. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 41, 115-128. Gross, J. J. (1988) Emotional expression in cancer onset and progression. Social Science in Medicine, 28, 1239-1248.
Hernstein, R. J. & Murray, C. (1994).
The bell curve: Intelligence and class in American life. New York: Free Press. House, J. S. (1981).
Work stress and social support, Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
Hochschild, A. R. (1983).
The managed heart, Berkley, CA: University of California Press.
Hull, J. G. , Van Treuren, R. R. & Virnelli, S. (1987).
Hardiness and health: A critique and alternative approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 518-530. Hume, D. (1948).
A treatise of human nature. In H.
D. Aiken (Ed. ), Hume: Moral and political philosophy (pp. 1-169).
New York: Hafner Press. (Original work published 1739) Hummel, R.
P. (1987).
The bureaucratic experience (3 rd Ed).
New York: St Martin’s Press. International Personality Item Pool (2001).
A Scientific Collaborator y for the Development of Advanced Measures of Personality Traits and Other Individual Differences (web).
Internet Web Site. James, N. (1989).
Emotional labour: Skill and work in the social regulation of feelings.
Sociological Review, 37, 15-42 Kant, I. (1953).
Critique of judgment (J. H. Bernard, Trans.
) New York: Hafner. (Original work published 1793) Kala fat, J. (1997).
Prevention of youth suicide. In J.
Ciarrochi. , F. P. Deane. , & S.
Anderson. (2002).
Emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 197-209.
Karlin, R. M. (1990).
Perceived managerial empathy in a workplace setting: Some preliminary findings and correlates.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Temple University, New York. Kihlstrom, J. F. & Cantor, N. (2000) Social Intelligence. In R.
J. Sternberg (Ed. ) Handbook of intelligence (2 nd ed. ).
New York: Cambridge University Press Lazarus, R.
S. (1991).
Cognition and motivation in emotion. American Psychologist, 46, 352-367. Le Doux, J. (1998).
The emotional brain. New York: Simon & Schuster. Lopes, P. N. , Salovey, P. , & Straus, R.
(2003).
Emotional intelligence, personality, and the perceived quality of social relationships. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 641-658. Lovibond, S. H. & Lovibond, P.
F. (1995).
Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales. Sydney: Psychological Foundation Matthews, G. , Joyner, L. , Gilliland, K, .
Campbell, S. E. , Huggins, J. , & Falconer, S.
(1999).
Validation of a comprehensive stress state questionnaire: Towards a state “Big Three”? In I. Mervielde, I. J. Deary, F. De Fruyt & F.
Ostendorf (Eds. ), Personality psychology in Europe, (Vol 7. pp. 335-350).
Tilburg: Tilburg University Press. Matthews, G.
, Zeidner, M. , & Roberts, R. (2003) Emotional intelligence: Science and myth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Mayer, J. D.
& Cobb, C. D. (2000).
Educational policy on emotional intelligence: Does it make sense? Educational Psychology Review, 12, 163-183 Mayer, J.
D. & Hanson, E. (1995).
Mood congruent judgement over time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 237-244. Mayer, J.
D. & Mitchell, D. C. (1998).
Intelligence as a subsystem of personality: From Spearman’s g to contemporary models of hot-processing. In W.
Tm oic & J. King ma (Eds. ), Advances in cognition and educational practice (Vol. 5, pp.
43-75).
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P.
(1997).
What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.
), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators (pp. 3-31).
New York: Basic Books. Mayer, J.
D. , Salovey, P. , & Caruso, D. (1999).
Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence.
Intelligence, 27, 267-298. Mayer, J. D. , Salovey, P.
, & Caruso, D. (2000) Emotional intelligence as zeitgeist, as personality, and as mental ability. In R. Bar-On & J. D.
A Parker (Eds. ), Handbook of emotional intelligence (pp. 92-117).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mayer, J. D. , Salovey, P. , & Caruso, D. , & Sitarenios, G.
(2001) Emotional intelligence as a standard intelligence. Emotion, 1, 232-242 McCallum, M. , & Piper, W. E. (2001) Psychological mindedness and emotional intelligence. In R.
Bar-On, & J. D. A. Parker.
Handbook of emotional intelligence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mehrabian, A. (2000) Beyond IQ: Broad-based measurement of individual success potential or “emotional intelligence.” Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 126, 133-239.
Meyerson, D. E. (1990).
Uncovering socially undesirable emotions: Experiences of ambiguity in organizations.
American Behavioral Scientist, 33, 296-307. Mischel, W. (1990).
Personality dispositions revisited and revised: A view after three decades. In L. A.
P arvin (Ed. ), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 111-134).
New York: Guilford Press. Mower, O. H.
(1960) Learning theory and behavior. New York: Wiley. Nem iah, J. , Frey berger, H.
, & Sif neos, P. E. (1976) Alexithymia: a view of the psychosomatic process. In O.
W. Hill, Modern trends in psychosomatic medicine (3) (pp. 430-439).
London: Butterworths. Northwestern National Life, (1991).
Employee Burnout: America’s newest epidemic.
Minneapolis, MN: Northwestern National Life Insurance Company. Northwestern National Life Insurance Company [1992]. Employee burnout: Causes and cures. Minneapolis, MN: Northwestern National Life Insurance Company. Orange, D. M.
(1995).
Emotional understanding: Studies in psychoanalytic epistemology. New York: Guilford Press Palmer, B. & S tough, C. (2001) Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test interim technical manual.
Organisational Psychology Research Unit: Melbourne Australia. Pavo t, W. , & Diener, E. (1993) Review of the Satisfaction With Life Scale.
Psychological Assessment, 5 (2).
164-172 Payne, W. L. (1986).
A study of emotion: Developing emotional intelligence; Self-integration; relating to fear, pain and desire. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 (01), 203 A. (University Microfilms No. AAC 8605928. Petrie, K. J.
, Booth, R. J. , Pennekbaker, J. W.
, Davison, K. P. , & Thomas, M. G.
(1995).
Disclosure or trauma and immune response to a hepatitis B vaccination program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 787-792. Pennebaker, J. W. (1997).
Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science, 8, 162-166. Pennebaker, J. W. , Colder, M, . & Sharp, L.
K. (1990) Accelerating the coping process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 528-537. Pennekbaker, J. W. , Kie colt-Glaser, J.
K. , & Glaser, R. (1988) Disclosure of traumas and immune function: Health implications for psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 239-245. Pfeffer, J. (1992).
Managing with power: Politics and influence in organizations. Boston. MA: Harvard Business School Press. Pugliesi, K. (1999).
The consequences of emotional labor: Effects on work stress, job satisfaction, and well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 23, 125-154. Putnam, L. L, & Mum by, D. K. (1993).
Organizations, emotion and the myth of rationality. In S. Fine man (Ed. ), Emotion in organizations (pp.
36-57).
London: Sage. Rhode walt, F. & Zone, J.
B. (1989).
Appraisal of life change, depression, and illness in hardy and non hardy women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 81-88. Roger, D. , & Naj arian, B.
(1989) The construction and validation of a new scale for measuring emotional control. Personality and Individual differences, 10, 845-853. Ry back, D. (1998).
Putting emotional intelligence to work: Successful leadership is more than IQ. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Ryff, C. (1989).
Happiness Is Everything, or Is It? Explorations on the Meaning of Psychological Well-Being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57 (6), 1069-1081. Ryff, C. & Heinrich, S.
(1997).
Experience and well being: Explorations on domains of life and how they matter. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 20 (2), 193-206. Saarni, C.
(1997) Emotional competence and self-regulation in childhood. In P. Salovey &D. J.
Sluyter (Eds. ), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications (pp. (35-66).
New York: Basic Books. Saarni, C. (1999) The development of emotional competence.
New York: Guilford Press. Salovey, P. , Bedell, B. T, Det weiler, J. B. & Mayer, J.
D. (1999).
Coping intelligently: Emotional intelligence and the coping process. In C. R. Snyder (Ed.
), Coping: The psychology of what works (pp. 141-164).
New York: Oxford University Press. Salovey, P.
& Birnbaum, D. (1989).
The influence of mood on health-relevant cognition’s. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 539-551. Salovey, P. , & Mayer, J.
D. (1990).
Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185-211. Salovey, P.
, Mayer, J. D. , & Caruso, D. (1999) Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27 (4), 267-298.
Salovey, P. , Mayer, J. D. , & Caruso, D. (2002) The positive psychology of emotional intelligence. In C.
R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds. ), Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 159-171).
New York: Oxford University Press. Salovey, P. , Mayer, J. D.
, Turkey, C. , & Pal fai, T. (1995) Emotional attention, clarity and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.
), Emotion, disclosure, and health (pp. 125-154).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Salovey, P. , & Rodin, J, . (1986).
Differentiation of social-comparison jealousy and romantic jealousy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1100-1112. Salovey, P. , & Rodin, J, .
(1986).
Envy and jealousy in close relationships. Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 221-246. Salovey, P. , Stroud, L. R.
, Wooley, A. & E pel, E. (2002).
Perceived emotional intelligence, stress reactivity, and symptom reports: Further explorations using the trait meta-mood scale. Psychology and Health, 17, 611-627.
Sand elands, L. E. (1988) The concept of work feeling. Journal for the theory of social behavior, 18, 437-457. Schaffer, L. F.
, Gilmer, B. , & Schoen, M. (1940).
Psychology. New York: HarperScheier, M.
F. & Carver, C. S. (1985).
Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219-247. Schneider, B. , & Bowen, D. E.
(1985).
Employees and customer perceptions of service in banks: Replication and extension. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 423-433. Scherer, M. (1997) Perspectives: Heart start. Educational Leadership, 54, 4.
Schutte, N. S. , Malouff, J. M.
, Hall, L. E. , Haggerty, D. J. , Cooper, J. T.
, Golden, C. J. , & Dornheim, L. (1998).
Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality ad Individual Differences, 25, 167-177.
Shipman, K. L. , & Zeman, J. (1999) Emotional understanding: A comparison of physically maltreating and non maltreating mother-child dyads.
Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 407-418. Showers, C. J. , & Kling, K.
C. (1996).
The organization of self-knowledge: Implications for mood regulation. In L. L. Martin & A.
T esser (Eds. ) Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp. 151-173).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum).
Solomon, R. C.
(2000) The philosophy of emotions. In M. Lewis & J. M.
Haviland-Jones (Eds. ) Handbook of Emotions (2 nd ed. ).
New York: Guilford Press Simpson, J. , Ices, W. , & Blackstone, T.
(1995) When the head protects the heart: Empathic accuracy in dating relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 629-641. Simon, H. A.
(1982) Comments. In M. S. Clark & S. T. Fiske (Eds.
), Affect and cognition (pp. 333-342).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. S mither, J. W.
, Collins, H. , & Buda, R. (1989).
When rate satisfaction influences performance evaluations: A case of illusory correlation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74. 599-605.
Smyth, J. M. (1998) Written ad emotional expression: Effect sizes, outcome types, and moderating variables. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 174-184. Soper, B. & Von Bergen, C.
W. (2001).
Employment counseling and life stressor’s: Coping through expressive writing. Journal of Employment Counseling, 38, 150-160. Spencer, S. M.
, & Spencer, L. M. (1993) Competence at work: Models for superior performance. New York: Wiley. S pera, S. P.
, Buhr feind, E. D. & Pennebaker, J. W.
(1994).
Expressive writing and coping with job loss. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 722-733. Spiegel, D. , Kraemer, H. C.
, Bloom, J. R. , & Got theil, E. , (1989, October 14) Effect of psychosocial treatment on survival of patients with metastatic breast cancer. The Lancet, 888-891.
Star, B. M. , Sutton, R. I.
& Pulled, L. H. (1994).
Employee positive emotion and favorable outcomes at the workplace. Organization Science, 5, 1. Sternberg, R.
J. (1985).
The mind: A new theory of human intelligence. New York: Penguin. Sternberg, R. J.
(2000) Handbook of intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sutton, R. I.
(1991) Maintaining norms about emotional expression: The case of bill collectors, Administrative Science Quarterly, 36, 245-268. Tarr is, T. W. , Bok, I.
A. , & Calle, D. G. (1998) On the relation between job characteristics and depression: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Stress Management, 5 (3), 157-167. Text, R.
, Wang, A. , Thomas, M. , Griebler, J. , & Linkovich T.
(April 4, 1997).
Testing a model of emotional intelligence. Paper presented at the 1997 Annual Convention of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Atlanta, GA. Thorndike, E. L.
(1920) Intelligence and its use. Harper Magazine, 140, 227-235. Tho its, P. A. (1985).
Self-labelling process in mental illness: The role of emotional deviance. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 221-249. Vag g, P. R. & Spielberg er, C. D.
(1998).
Occupational stress: Measuring job pressure and organizational support in the workplace. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3, 294-305. Van Maan en, J.
(1973) Observations on the making of a policeman. Human Organization, 32, 407-417. Walt Disney Productions. (1982) Your role in the Walt Disney World Show. Orlando, FL: Author. Watson, D.
& Pennebaker, J. W. (1989).
Health complaints, stress, and distress: Exploring the central role of negative.
Psychological Review, 96, 234-254. Wel bourne, T. M. , Johnson, D. E. , & Erez, A.
(1998).
The role-based performance scale: Validity analysis of a theory-based measure. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 540-556. Weisinger, H. (1998).
Emotional intelligence at work: The untapped edge for success.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Wordsworth, R. S. (1940).
Psychology (4 th ed. ) New York: Holt.
