Fuel is any material that stores energy that can later be extracted to perform mechanical work in a controlled manner. Most fuels used by humans undergo combustion, a redox reaction in which a combustible substance releases energy after it ignites and reacts with the oxygen in the air. Other processes used to convert fuel into energy include various other exothermic chemical reactionsand nuclear reactions, such as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as cellular respiration, where organic molecules are oxidized to release usable energy. Hydrocarbons are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, but many other substances, such as radioactive metals, are currently used as well .
Fuels are chemical substances which may be burned in oxygen to generate heat. They mainly consist of carbon and hydrogen and sometimes a small amount of sulfur or minerals. There are solid, liquid and gaseous fuels. Coal and Coke are examples of solid fuels. Petroleum oils are usually a mixture of several liquid fuels. Gaseous fuels may be a mixture of gases such as methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6) and so on. The components before the combustion process are called reactants. The combustion processproduces new components which are called products. E.g. combustion of 1 kmol of carbon with 1 kmol of pure oxygen will produce 1 kmol carbon dioxide:
What is Fuel?
Fuel is any material that is burned or altered in order to obtain energy. Fuel releases its energy either through a chemical reaction means, such as combustion, or nuclear means, such as nuclear fissionor nuclear fusion. An important property of a useful fuel is that its energy can be stored to be released only when needed, and that the release is controlled in such a way that the energy can be harnesseud to produce work.
The Essay on Solar Energy Nuclear Reaction Disk
... type of vitally important energy is Chemical. It utilizes the energy release from chemical reaction. The energy is both release and absorbed by the ... to convert mechanical energy by electromagnetic means, for example, that provided by the combustion of fuel, into electricity. There ... A form of energy that is safer than nuclear energy is solar energy. Solar energy is any form of energy radiated by the ...
All carbon-based life forms – from microorganisms to animals and humans – depend on and use fuelsas their source of energy. Their cells engage in an enzyme-mediated chemical process called metabolism that converts energy from food or solar power into a form that can be used to sustain life.
Additionally, humans employ a variety of techniques to convert one form of energy into another, producing usable energy for purposes that go far beyond the energy needs of a human body. The application of energy released from fuels ranges from heat to cooking and from powering weapons tocombustion and generation of electricity.
CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS:
Not all fires are the same, and they are classified according to the type of fuel that is burning. If you use the wrong type of fire extinguisher on the wrong class of fire, you can, in fact, make matters worse. It is therefore very important to understand the four different fire classifications.
| Class A – Wood, paper, cloth, trash, plastics
Solid combustible materials that are not metals. (ClassA fires generally leave an Ash.) |
| Class B – Flammable liquids: gasoline, oil, grease, acetone
Any non-metal in a liquid state, on fire. This classification also includes flammable gases. (Class Bfires generally involve materials that Boil or Bubble.) |
| Class C – Electrical: energized electrical equipment
As long as it’s “plugged in,” it would be considered a class C fire. (Class C fires generally deal with electricalCurrent.) |
| Class D – Metals: potassium, sodium, aluminum, magnesium
Unless you work in a laboratory or in an industry that uses these materials, it is unlikely you’ll have to deal with a Class D fire. It takes special extinguishing agents (Metal-X, foam) to fight such a fire. |
Most fire extinguishers will have a pictograph label telling you which classifications of fire the extinguisher is designed to fight. For example, a simple water extinguisher might have a label like the one below, indicating that it should only be used on Class A fires.
The Essay on The Advantages Of Coal Fired Power Plant
We Students had an opportunity to learn about the functions, the misconceptions and the advantages of having a Coal-Fired Power Plant as the source of our daily need of electricity. We had conducted a symposium with the representatives of the company (Panay Electric Company Inc.) last Thursday, October 19,2011. And now we know the answers behind every inquisitions of the people of Panay region, ...
Fuel is used to power anything, from cars to airplanes to toy motor boats. It is the lifeblood of our transportation system. As our technology advances, society is able to use several natural and man-made sources to power our vehicles. This article will explore the different types of fuel and their properties
Gasoline
* Gas pump
*
The most obvious fuel used in daily life runs our cars, school buses and trucks each day. Gasoline and diesel are non-renewable fuels created from crude oil deposits in the ground or in the ocean. We use gasoline to power lawnmowers and other maintenance equipment. Construction sites power backhoes, dump trucks, cranes and other types of equipment with diesel.
1. Natural Gas
* natural gas can be used to power the heating systems, stove tops, water heaters and dryers in our homes. Natural gas burns very cleanly and creates a good deal of energy when burning, according the Natural Gas.org. This type of fuel is mostly comprised of methane but can contain other gases as well. Natural gas can often be found as underground deposits near oil pockets. Oil emits gases that rise to the higher levels of underground pockets of oil trapped within rock layers. Wells tap into these pockets to remove the natural gas for use in your home.
*
Coal
*
* Columbus Southern Power Co. smoke stacks
Many electrical plants burn coal as the primary fossil fuel for powering the electrical supply for homes across the country. According to the American Coal Foundation, coal-powered electricity fuels the electrical needs for more than half of all U.S. homes. Machines crumble the coal into small particles that get placed inside a furnace. The coal gets burned to heat water that creates steam that fuels a turbine to create mechanical energy. This mechanical energy converts to electrical energy in a generator then gets transmitted through substations that deliver electricity to customers.
The Term Paper on Fuel Cell Technology Power Cells Energy
Fuel cell technology 1 Running head: FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY: TRANSPORTATION AND RESIDENTIAL/ COMMERICAL APPLICATIONS Fuel Cell Technology: Transportation and residential / commercial applications Monique University 2 A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. A fuel cell converts the chemicals hydrogen and oxygen into water, and in the process it produces electricity. With a fuel ...
Water
* Water is often called the fuel of life, and for good reason. Our bodies consist of 60 percent to 75 percent water. We use water to bathe, wash clothes, cook and drink every day. This form of fuel also generates power for homes in areas near running streams and rivers. Dams block the water flow, creating built-up energy as the water accumulates. When the sluices release, the water flows toward a large turbine. The energy converts from mechanical to electrical energy and then is transmitted to a transformer to boost the electrical output. This renewable source of energy limits air pollution and provides about 7 percent of U.S. electrical power, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.
*
Octane rating
For more details on this topic, see octane rating.
Internal combustion engines are designed to burn gasoline in a controlled process called deflagration. But in some cases, gasoline can also combust abnormally by detonation, which wastes energy and can damage the engine. One way to reduce detonation is to increase the gasoline’s resistance toautoignition, which is expressed by its octane rating.
Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (an isomer of octane) and n-heptane. There are different conventions for expressing octane ratings, so a fuel may have several different octane ratings based on the measure used. Research octane number (RON) for gasoline varies with country. In Finland, Sweden, and Norway, 95 RON is the standard for regular unleaded petrol and 98 RON is also available as a more expensive option. In the UK, ordinary regular unleaded petrol is 91 RON (not commonly available), premium unleaded petrol is always 95 RON, and super unleaded is usually 97-98 RON. However, both Shell and BP produce fuel at 102 RON for cars with high-performance engines, and the supermarket chain Tesco began in 2006 to sell super unleaded petrol rated at 99 RON. In the US, octane ratings in unleaded fuels can vary between 86 and 87 AKI (91-92 RON) for regular, through 89-90 AKI (94-95 RON) for mid-grade (European premium), up to 90-94 AKI (95-99 RON) for premium (European super).
The Term Paper on Privately Owned Gasoline Powered Vehicles Should Be Limited
Privately Owned Gasoline Powered Vehicles Should Be Limited February 25, 1995 Social Studies 10 H The automobile has become a very important part of today's society. Itis a necessity to own or to have access to a car in order to keep up with all of the competition of the business world, and also one's social demands. Most people would not be able to travel around a country or the world without ...
The octane rating became important as the military sought higher output for aircraft engines in the late 1930s and the 1940s. A higher octane rating allows a higher compression ratio, and thus higher temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output. Some scientists even predicted that nation with a good supply of high octane gasoline would have the advantage in air power [
Volatility
Gasoline is more volatile than diesel oil, Jet-A, or kerosene, not only because of the base constituents, but also because of additives. Volatility is often controlled by blending with butane, which boils at -0.5 °C. The volatility of gasoline is determined by the Reid vapor pressure (RVP) test. The desired volatility depends on the ambient temperature. In hot weather, gasoline components of highermolecular weight and thus lower volatility are used. In cold weather, too little volatility results in cars failing to start.
In hot weather, excessive volatility results in what is known as “vapor lock”, where combustion fails to occur, because the liquid fuel has changed to a gaseous fuel in the fuel lines, rendering the fuel pump ineffective and starving the engine of fuel. This effect mainly applies to camshaft-driven (engine mounted) fuel pumps which lack a fuel return line. Vehicles with fuel injection require the fuel to be pressurized, to within a set range. Because camshaft speed is nearly zero before the engine is started, an electric pump is used. It is located in the fuel tank so the fuel may also cool the high-pressure pump. Pressure regulation is achieved by returning unused fuel to the tank. Therefore, vapor lock is almost never a problem in a vehicle with fuel injection.
In the United States, volatility is regulated in large cities to reduce the emission of unburned hydrocarbons by the use of so-called reformulated gasoline that is less prone to evaporation. In Australia, summer petrol volatility limits are set by state governments and vary among states. Most countries simply have a summer, winter, and perhaps intermediate limit.
Detergents
Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve combustion, and to allow easier starting in cold climates. High levels of detergent can be found in Top Tier Detergent Gasolines. These gasolines exceed the U.S. EPA’s minimum requirement for detergent content. The specification for Top Tier Detergent Gasolines was developed by four automakers: GM, Honda, Toyota and BMW. According to the bulletin, the minimal EPA requirement is not sufficient to keep engines clean.[17] Typical detergents include alkylamines and alkyl phosphates at the level of 50-100 ppm.[9]
The Essay on Oil, Gas and Coal
The Problems with…. OIL, GAS AND COAL: The extraction of oil, from the Earth's crust currently provides most of the energy and resources needed to run our society, and to meet our ever-increasing energy demands. Burning oil, gas and coal causes great problem of huge number of CO2 being released to the air. The carbon dioxide that is released is the cause of the greenhouse effect. Increasing the ...
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline (petrol), diesel, or propane/LPG. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter than air, and disperses quickly when released).
CNG may also be mixed with biogas, produced from landfills or wastewater, which doesn’t increase the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere.
USES:
Worldwide, there were 12.6 million natural gas vehicles by 2010, up 11.6% over the previous year, led by Pakistanwith 2.74 million, Iran (1.95 million), Argentina (1.9 million),Brazil (1.6 million), and India (1.1 million).[1] with the Asia-Pacific region leading with 5.7 million NGVs, followed by Latin America with almost 4 million vehicles.[1]
CNG cars available in Europe are bi-fuel vehicles burning one fuel at a time. Their engine is a standard gasoline internal combustion engine (ICE).
This means that they can indifferently run on either gasoline from a gasoline tank or CNG from a separate cylinder in the trunk. The driver can select what fuel to burn by simply flipping a switch on the dashboard.
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Advantages
CNG powered bus in Madrid (Spain).
Due to the absence of any lead or benzene content in CNG, the lead fouling of spark plugs is eliminated. CNG-powered vehicles have lower maintenance costs when compared with other fuel-powered vehicles. CNG fuel systems are sealed, which prevents any spill or evaporation losses. Another practical advantage observed is the increased life of lubricating oils, as CNG does not contaminate and dilute the crankcase oil. CNG mixes easily and evenly in air being a gaseous fuel. CNG is less likely to auto-ignite on hot surfaces, since it has a high auto-ignition temperature (540 °C) and a narrow range (5%-15%) of flammability.[6]
The Term Paper on Solar and Wind Energy
Which is the more viable energy source for Australia’s energy and needs, Wind or Solar? This is a common debatable topic within the Federal Government of Australia. Debating which specific form of energy should be invested heavily in, in hope that carbon emissions and the use of coal will be reduced in the future (Clean Line, 2013). It is believed that the dominance of coal will be challenged by ...
DRAW BACKS:Compressed natural gas vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel storage than conventional gasoline powered vehicles. Since it is a compressed gas, rather than a liquid like gasoline, CNG takes up more space for each gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE).
Therefore, the tanks used to store the CNG usually take up additional space in the trunk of a car or bed of a pickup truck which runs on CNG. This problem is solved in factory-built CNG vehicles that install the tanks under the body of the vehicle, thanks to a more rational disposition of components, leaving the trunk free (e.g. Fiat Multipla, New Fiat Panda, Volkswagen Touran Ecofuel, Volkswagen Caddy Ecofuel, Chevy Taxi – which sold in countries such as Peru).
Another option is installation on roof (typical on buses), requiring, however, solution of structural strength issues. CNG-powered vehicles are considered to be safer than gasoline-powered vehicles.[8][9][10]
Liquefied petroleum gas (also called LPG, GPL, LP Gas, or liquid propane gas) is a flammable mixture ofhydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles. It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer. When specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred to asautogas.
Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane (C3H8), primarily butane (C4H10) and, most commonly, mixes including both propane and butane, depending on the season — in winter more propane, in summer more butane[citation needed]. Propylene andbutylenes are usually also present in small concentration. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be detected easily. The international standard is EN 589. In the United States, thiophene or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants.
LPG USED 4 COOKING:’
According to the 2001 Census of India, 17.5% of Indian households or 33.6 million Indian households used LPG as cooking fuel in 2001, which is supplied to to their homes by Indian Oil which is known as Indane.[16] 76.64% of such households were from urban India making up 48% of urban Indian households as compared to a usage of 5.7% only in rural Indian households. LPG is subsidised by the government. Increase in LPG prices has been a politically sensitive matter in India as it potentially affects the urban middle class voting pattern.
LPG was once a popular cooking fuel in Hong Kong; however, the continued expansion of town gas to buildings has reduced LPG usage to less than 24% of residential units.
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Environmental Effects
Commercially available LPG is currently derived from fossil fuels. Burning LPG releases CO2, an important greenhouse gas, contributing to global warming. LPG does, however, release less CO2 per unit of energy than that of coal or oil. It emits 81% of the CO2 per kWh produced by oil, 70% of that of coal, and less than 50% of that emitted by coal-generated electricity distributed via the grid.[citation needed] Being a mix of propane and butane, LPG emits less carbon per joule than butane but more carbon per joule than propane.
LPG can be considered to burn more ‘cleanly’ than heavier molecule hydrocarbons, in that it releases very few particulates when burnt.
n
Natural gas is agas consisting primarily ofmethane, typically with 0–20% higher hydrocarbons[1](primarily ethane).
It is found associated with other hydrocarbon fuel, in coal beds, as methane clathrates, and is an important fuel source and a major feedstock for fertilizers.
Most natural gas is created by two mechanisms: biogenic and thermogenic. Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at greater temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material.[2]
Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must undergo processing to remove almost all materials other than methane. The by-products of that processing include ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, elemental sulfur, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and sometimes helium and nitrogen.
Natural gas is often informally referred to as simply gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal.
Town gas
is a synthetically produced mixture of methane and other gases, mainly the highly toxiccarbon monoxide, that can be used in a similar way to natural gas and can be produced by treatingcoal chemically. This is a historical technology, still used as ‘best solution’ in some local circumstances, although coal gasification is not usually economic at current gas prices. However, depending upon infrastructure considerations, it remains a future possibility.
Most town “gashouses” located in the eastern US in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were simple by-product coke ovens which heated bituminous coal in air-tight chambers. The gas driven off from the coal was collected and distributed through networks of pipes to residences and other buildings where it was used for cooking and lighting. (Gas heating did not come into widespread use until the last half of the 20th century.) The coal tar (or asphalt) that collected in the bottoms of the gashouse ovens was often used for roofing and other water-proofing purposes, and when mixed with sand and gravel was used for paving streets.
When methane-rich gases are produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossil organic matter (biomass), these are referred to as biogas (or natural biogas).
Sources of biogas include swamps,marshes, and landfills (see landfill gas), as well as sewage sludge and manure[8] by way of anaerobic digesters, in addition to enteric fermentation particularly in cattle.
Methanogenic archaea are responsible for all biological sources of methane, some in symbiotic relationships with other life forms, including termites, ruminants, and cultivated crops. Methane released directly into the atmosphere would be considered a pollutant. However, methane in the atmosphere is oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and water. Methane in the atmosphere has a half life of seven years, meaning that if a tonne of methane were emitted today, 500 kilograms would have broken down to carbon dioxide and water after seven years.
Biogas
Main article: biogas
When methane-rich gases are produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossil organic matter (biomass), these are referred to as biogas (or natural biogas).
Sources of biogas include swamps,marshes, and landfills (see landfill gas), as well as sewage sludge and manure[8] by way of anaerobic digesters, in addition to enteric fermentation particularly in cattle.
Methanogenic archaea are responsible for all biological sources of methane, some in symbiotic relationships with other life forms, including termites, ruminants, and cultivated crops. Methane released directly into the atmosphere would be considered a pollutant. However, methane in the atmosphere is oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and water. Methane in the atmosphere has a half life of seven years, meaning that if a tonne of methane were emitted today, 500 kilograms would have broken down to carbon dioxide and water after seven years.
Coal
is a combustible black or brownish-blacksedimentary rock normally occurring in rock strata inlayers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, with smaller quantities ofsulfur, oxygen and nitrogen.[citation needed]
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Formation
Coal begins as layers of plant matter accumulating at the bottom of a body of water. For the process to continue, the plant matter must be protected from biodegradation and oxidization, usually by mud or acidic water. This traps their carbon in immense peat bogs that are eventually covered over and deeply buried by sediments. Under this compression the plant material is metamorphosed into coal: over time, the chemical and physical properties of the plant remains are changed by geological action to create a solid material.[1]
The wide shallow seas of the Carboniferous period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, although coal is known from most geological periods. The exception is the coal gap in the Lower Triassic, where coal is rare: presumably a result of the mass extinction which prefaced this era. Coal is even known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants: this coal is presumed to have originated from algal residues.[2][3]
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Types
* As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under suitable conditions it is transformed successively into: Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water
* Lignite, also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation. Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
Sub-bituminous coal,
whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation.
* Bituminous coal, dense sedimentary rock, black but sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to makecoke
*
* Steam coal is a grade between bituminous coal and anthracite, once widely used as a fuel for steam locomotives. In this specialized use it is sometimes known as sea-coal in the U.S.[5] Small steam coal (dry small steam nuts or DSSN) was used as a fuel for domestic water heating
* Anthracite, the highest rank; a harder, glossy, black coal used primarily for residential and commercial space heating. It may be divided further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and petrified oil, as from the deposits in Pennsylvania
* Graphite, technically the highest rank, but difficult to ignite and is not so commonly used as fuel: it is mostly used in pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.
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Solar energy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about all uses of solar energy. For the journal, see Solar Energy Journal.
Nellis Solar Power Plant in the United States, one of the largest photovoltaicpower plants in North America.
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary solar-powered resources such as wind andwave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used.
Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat enginesand photovoltaics. Solar energy’s uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture,potable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting,solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar panels.
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Energy from the Sun
Main articles: Insolation and Solar radiation
About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth’s surface.
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere.[1]Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. Thespectrum of solar light at the Earth’s surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet.[2]
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Applications of solar technology
Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year. Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m2 or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m2/day.
Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. However, all renewable energies, other thangeothermal and tidal, derive their energy from the sun.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies.[15]
Agriculture and horticulture
Greenhouses like these in the Westland municipality of the Netherlands grow vegetables, fruits and flowers.
Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields.[21][22] While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of the Little
Water heating
Main articles: Solar hot water and Solar combisystem
Solar water heaters facing the Sun to maximize gain.
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical latitudes (below 40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 °C can be provided by solar heating systems.[38] The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming pools.[39]
Cooking
Main article: Solar cooker
The Solar Bowl in Auroville, India, concentrates sunlight on a movable receiver to produce steam for cooking.
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying andpasteurization. They can be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers.[56] The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767.[57] A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90–150 °C.[58]Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers
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ISO Standards
The International Organization for Standardization has established a number of standards relating to solar energy equipment. For example, ISO 9050 relates to glass in building while ISO 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters.
Petroleum (L. petroleum, from Greek: petra (rock) +Latin: oleum (oil)[1]) orcrude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquidconsisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds, that are found in geologic formationsbeneath the Earth’s surface. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. This latter stage comes after the studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentary basin analysis, reservoir characterization (mainly in terms of porosity and permeable structures).[2][3]It is refined and separated, most easily by boiling point, into a large number of consumer products, from petrol andkerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to makeplastics and pharmaceuticals.[4] Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety of materials.[5]
omposition
In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes all liquid, gaseous, and solid (e.g., paraffin) hydrocarbons. Under surface pressure and temperature conditions, lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane occur as gases, while pentane and heavier ones are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an underground oil reservoir the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the phase diagram of the petroleum mixture.[8]
An oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas. A gas well produces predominantly natural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, and heptane in the gaseous state. At surface conditions these will condense out of the gas to form natural gas condensate, often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles petrol in appearance and is similar in composition to some volatile light crude oils.
The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies greatly among different oil fields, ranging from as much as 97% by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50% in the heavier oils andbitumens.
The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbonswhile the other organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as follows:[9]
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Hydrogen fuel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An ecologically-friendly fuel which uses electrochemical cells or combusts in internal engines to power vehicles and electric devices. It is also used in the propulsion of spacecraft and can potentially be mass produced and commercialized for passenger vehicles and aircraft.
In a flame of pure hydrogen gas, burning in air, the hydrogen (H2) reacts with oxygen (O2) to formwater (H2O) and heat. It does not produce other chemical by-products, except for a small amount ofnitrogen oxides. Hence a key feature of hydrogen as a fuel is that it is relatively non-polluting (since water is not a pollutant).
Pure hydrogen does not occur naturally; it takes energy to manufacture it. Once manufactured it is an energy carrier (i.e. a store for energy first generated by other means).
The energy is eventually delivered as heat when the hydrogen is burned. The heat in a hydrogen flame is aradiant emission from the newly formed water molecules. The water molecules are in an excited stateon initial formation and then transition to a ground state, the transition unleashing thermal radiation. When burning in air, the temperature is roughly 2000°C. Hydrogen fuel can provide motive power for cars, boats and aeroplanes, portable fuel cell applications or stationary fuel cell applications, which can power an electric motor.
GREEN CONSUMER DAY:In India, it was a long weekend for us lately as the festive season is around. I really savored myself with lots of shopping and fun! But trust me shopping today is not that easy as it was during early days. Today, we are snared between an assortment of products in so many various models; we tend to get confused whether to buy this one or that one. Under such circumstances, choosing an appropriate product that fits our value propositions has become all the more important. Ahh, this reminds me of the fact that 28th September, i.e. yesterday was the Green Consumers Day!
Lately, terms such as global warming, recyclable, biodegradable, environmentally friendly, sustainable, compostable, and bio-based have created a buzz even among common men – thanks to the newspapers and electronic media, who constantly talk about this in one way or the other! Consequently, knowingly or unknowingly, people are getting more “Green Conscious” than “Brand Conscious” and are voting with their shopping dollars, gravitating towards green businesses. People are more concerned more than ever about the environmental impact of products they buy. Practical consumers purchase those products and packages that can be recycled or otherwise safely disposed off in their communities. As a result, the number of industries under fire from environmentalists has grown very rapidly. Green Consumerism has helped to spur significant shifts in the way in which some industries view the environmental challenge. Although green consumers express their environmental concerns in individual ways, they are motivated by universal needs. These needs translate into new purchasing strategies with implications for the ways product are developed and marketed. Many industries have realized that it is not easy to fulfill the appetite of people for shopping with material goods. So in turn, they have also shifted towards green techniques.
So, if you are not a green consumer, then Green Consumer Day is the day when you can think and rethink on what we buy, how and the impact it has on us and on our common environment. Motivated by the universal need that has arisen; we can take our small baby steps, which would add to the conglomeration of the bigger cause – Environment Protection. Let us Go Green and make a difference!
FUEL CONSERVATION ON AN ECONOMIC LEVEL:
In the pass months the price of oil has been rising steadily throughout the Caribbean and the world to a greater extent – reachingrecord breaking prices. Just this week theDominica government announced yet another increase in fuel cost. One gallon of gas in Dominica is now stands roughly at ECD$15.00.
Though we can’t control the price of fuel on the world market, but we think of ways on how we can conservation fuel. This will not only be helpful to the environment, but also on your wallet.
I’ve mapped out some helpful ideas which can help drivers conserve fuel and get better fuel mileage.
One thing that most drivers on a whole are not aware of is, great fuel conservation starts before you even get on the road:
* Service your vehicle regularly, and you will observe a 5 to 25 percent increase in gas mileage.
* You should check you tire pressure once a month, also keep them aligned and inflated properly – because having tires with low pressure can increase your use of fuel by 5%.
* Replacing your air filter every now and then is also a helpful.
* If you are not using your roof-racks, take them off! They add to drag. Unnecessary weight in your car can also take away from good gas mileage (this does not mean that you can throw your sister out of the car to conserve fuel… although, it would help! )
* Another way to start good fuel conservation is to plan ahead. Combine your errands into one trip. Think about riding your bike, walking, or riding the bus when possible and reasonable.
Fuel conservation can greatly be improved while you are driving or at the pump:
* Slow down! There is a reason why you be racing to a gas station when your vehicle is on empty – you are not going to get to a gas station faster by driving faster when the faster you drive the more gas you use! In simpler terms, your fuel usage will greatly decrease when you are driving at speeds above 55 mph. Besides, you will have a safer drive when you slow down, too.
* Avoid rapid accelerating. In fact, you ought to let up on that accelerator (by driving slower), and when you use the accelerator, use it gently. Maybe that’s why it is called “stepping on the gas.” The harder you step on the gas, the faster you use up your gas. Relax your driving style. Don’t drive aggressively. Accelerate slowly. Driving aggressively can lessen your fuel conservation by 30-40 percent…yep it true.
* Do not idle. Most cars nowadays no longer need to warm up to run.
* Turn off your car when you are waiting for someone.
* Fill up your tank early in the morning and on cooler days. The colder the gasoline is – the more compact it is… you will therefore end up getting more fuel mileage for your money.
Fuel conservation may seem like a long road, but even just doing a few of these things can really help improve your gas mileage. You could possible improve your fuel conservation by 40% or so by following some of these tips.
All of the tips on fuel conservation that we have given you so far have to do with the vehicle that you already have. But if you are planning on going out and buying a new vehicle, consider a vehicle that conserves fuel by design.
If possible and you can afford it, check out the hybrids or smaller cars. A hybrid vehicle may cost more at the onset, but you will surely save money in the end, especially if gas prices continue to rise. If you’re looking for a simple car and don’t need a ton of horsepower – you will get better gas mileage.
FUEL CONSERVATION ON AN INDIVIDUAL LEVEL:
Even if you do not consider yourself an environmentalist, a little fuel conservation can really help not just the environment, but also your wallet! The price of petrol seems to always beon the rise. The best defense against rising gas prices is fuel conservation.
Map out a good plan of fuel conservation by following these helpful ways to conserve fuel:
Great fuel conservation starts before you even hit the road:
· Keep your vehicle properly tuned, and it can get from 6 to 20 percent better gas mileage.
· Keep your tires aligned and inflated properly. You should check your tire pressure once a month. Having tire pressures that are too low can increase your use of fuel by 3%
· Replace your air filter.
· If you are not using your roof-racks, take them off! They add to drag. Unnecessary weight in your car can also take away from good gas mileage (this does not mean that you can throw your sister out of the car to conserve fuel… although, it would help!)
· Another way to start good fuel conservation is to plan ahead. Combine your errands into one trip. Think about riding your bike, walking, riding the bus, or carpooling when possible and reasonable.
Fuel conservation can greatly be improved while you are driving or at the pump:
· Slow down! There is a reason why you coast to a gas station when your vehicle is on empty – you are not going to get to a gas station faster by driving faster when the faster you drive the more gas you use! In simpler terms, your fuel usage will greatly decrease when you are driving at speeds above 55 mph. Besides, you will have a safer drive when you slow down, too.
· Avoid rapid accelerating. In fact, you ought to let up on the accelerator (by driving slower), and when you use the accelerator, use it gently. There is a reason why it is called “stepping on the gas.” The harder you step on the gas, the faster you use up your gas. Relax your driving style. Do not drive aggressively. Accelerate slowly. Driving aggressively can lessen your fuel conservation by 30-40 percent.
· Do not tailgate because it will lead to unnecessary braking and then acceleration.
· Do not idle. Modern cars no longer need to warm up to run.
· Turn off your car when you are waiting for someone.
· Your cruise control will add to your fuel conservation (of course, it is unreasonable to use it while just driving around town.)
· Your use of the air conditioner lessens your fuel economy, as well, especially if you use it at 40 mph or more. Why not just open the window to cool off? Park your vehicle in the shade.
· Using overdrive will lessen your fuel consumption while on the highway.
· Drive at the highest appropriate gear.
· While at the gas pump, use the lowest octane petrol suitable for your car – check your owner’s manual.
· Fill up your car with gas early in the morning and on cooler days. The colder the gasoline is, the more compact it is… you will therefore end up getting more bang for your buck.
This may seem like a long road to fuel conservation, but even just doing a few of these things can really help improve your gas mileage. You could possible improve your fuel conservation by 40% or so by following some of these tips.
If all of these suggestions seem overwhelming, just take a few at a time. The road to great fuel conservation can be a long one. Most all of the tips that we have given as of yet can be found in greater detail at the U.S. Department of Energy.
All of the tips on fuel conservation that we have given you so far have to do with the vehicle that you already have. If you are planning on going out and buying a new vehicle, consider a vehicle that conserves fuel by design.
Check out the hybrids or smaller cars. A hybrid vehicle may cost more at the onset, but you will surely save money in the end, especially if gas prices continue to rise. If you do not need a ton of horsepower, abandon it – you will get better gas mileage.
The first step to fuel conservation is education, so congratulations for being interested! You have passed the first step. Now go out there and start conserving fuel!
FUEL CONSERVATION ON A SOCIAL LEVEL:Visit a petrol pump only if your car has little or no fuel. I don’t find any reason of buying fuel if your car already has sufficient fuel. This method shall directly or indirectly save valuable fuel of the respective petrol pump. You can bypass this advice in emergencies.
1. Turn off your car in slow traffic and at traffic signals. It is estimated that you can save about 20% of fuel in this process.
2. Minimize the use of brakes. The more frequently you apply brakes, the more fuel you spend. You can avoid braking by maintaining a constant speed of your vehicle.
3. Encourage car pooling. This is a very effective way of saving fuel as well as reducing traffic on the roads.
4. If possible, use electric-powered cars.
5. Always insist on buying cars having an excellent mileage.
6. Don’t be a fan of Michael Schumacher! Drive at a constant speed. The faster you drive, the faster your fuel vanishes. Tests on Indian cars prove that you can get upto 40% extra mileage at 45-55 km/hr. as against 80 km/hr.
7. Use public transport systems as much as possible.
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9. Place your right hand on your heart and say the following – “I solemnly swear that I will conserve fuel as much as possible and try to use it economically. I shall dedicate my mind, body, heart and soul for the conservation of fuel.”
10. Spread awareness for fuel conservation amongst your friends and relatives.
Pollution caused by fuels on an environmental level:
Environmental Pollution
Petroleum-derived contaminants constitute one of the most prevalent sources of environmental degradation in the industrialized world. In large concentrations, the hydrocarbon molecules that make up crude oil and petroleum products are highly toxic to many organisms, including humans. Petroleum also contains trace amounts of sulfur and nitrogen compounds, which are dangerous by themselves and can react with the environment to produce secondary poisonous chemicals. The dominance of petroleum products in the United States and the world economy onditionsfordistributing large amounts of these toxins into populated areas and ecosystems around the globe.
* One of the more serious consequences of pollution caused by fossil fuels is global warming or climate change. Fossil fuel combustion introduces the so-called greenhouse gases into the air. Scientists believe that carbon and other emissions in the atmosphere created ground level ozone. This layer traps heat at the Earth’s surface, causing land and water temperatures to rise. These temperature increases in turn cause sea levels to rise due to melting ice caps. According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), rising ocean waters cause shorelines to erode at a rate of up to 3 feet a year.
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Water Pollution
* Hydraulic fracturing is a practice that may involve the injection of known toxic chemicals into or close to drinking water supplies.
* Storm water runoff during construction or runoff from established well pads can introduce sediment and toxic chemicals into nearby rivers and streams
* Storage and disposal of drilling and production wastes in pits can contaminate groundwater and surface waters
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* Oil Spills
Perhaps the most visible source of petroleum pollution are the catastrophic oil-tanker spills—like the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska—that make news headlines and provide disheartening pictures of oilcoated shorelines and dead or oiled birds and sea animals. These spills occur during the transportation of crude oil from exporting to importing nations. Crude oil travels for long distances by either ocean tanker or land pipeline, and both methods are prone to accidents. Oil may also spill at the site where it is extracted, as in the case of a blowout like the Ixtoc I exploratory well in 1979 (see table “Ten Largest Oil Spills in History”).
A blowout is one of the major risks of drilling for oil. It occurs when gas trapped inside the deposit is at such a high pressure that oil suddenly erupts out of the drill shaft in a geyser.
Accidents with tankers, pipelines, and oil wells release massive quantities of petroleum into land and marine ecosystems in a concentrated form. The ecological impacts of large spills like these have only been studied for a very
World Oil Price 1970-2000 (
World Oil Market and Price Chronologies DOE Energy Information Administration ; originally published by the Department of Energy’s Office of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, Analysis Division
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few cases, and it is not possible to say which have been the most environmentally damaging accidents in history. A large oil spill in the open ocean may do less harm to marine organisms than a small spill near the shore. The Exxon Valdez disaster created a huge ecological disaster not because of the volume of oil spilled (eleven million gallons) but because of the amount of shoreline affected, the sensitivity and abundance of organisms in the area, and the physical characteristics of the Prince William Sound, which helped to amplify the damage. The Exxon Valdez spill sparked the most comprehensive and costly cleanup effort ever attempted, and called more public attention to oil accidents than ever before. Scientific studies of the effects of oil in Prince William Sound are ongoing, and the number of tanker accidents worldwide has decreased significantly since the time of the Valdez spill, due to stricter regulations and such required improvements in vessel design as double-hull construction.
Petroleum-Contaminated Soil
Not all oil released from land sources is quickly washed away to sea, however. Pipeline and oil-well accidents, unregulated industrial waste, and leaking underground storage tanks can all permanently contaminate large areas of soil, making them economically useless as well as dangerous to the health of organisms living in and around them. Removing or treating soil contaminated by petroleum is especially urgent because the hydrocarbons can leach into the underlying groundwater and move into human residential areas. The engineering field of bioremediation has emerged in recent decades as a response to this threat. In bioremediation, bacteria that feed on hydrocarbons and transform them into carbon dioxide can be applied to an affected area. Bioremediation has in many cases made cleaning up petroleum-contaminated sites a profitable real-estate investment for land developers.
Soil Pollution
* Oil and gas industry wastes, which may contain petroleum hydrocarbons, metals, naturally occurring radioactive materials, salts and toxic chemicals, have the potential to cause soil pollution, and prevent the growth of vegetation.
* Produced water, which may contain high concentrations of salts and other contamiants, is often stored in pits or disposed of in evaporation ponds. Spills of produced water can kill vegetation and sterilize soils.
* Contaminants that enter the soil do not necessarily stay put. They can move down through the soil and contaminate groundwater, or up through the soil and be released to air. Learn about the subsurface transport of oilfield wastes
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Air Pollution
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designates six criteria pollutants for determining air quality. These are: carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO and/or NO 2 , usually referred to as NO x ), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), ground-level ozone (O 3 ), particulate matter (including things like soot, dust, asbestos fibers, pesticides, and metals), and lead (Pb).
Petroleum-fueled vehicles, engines, and industrial processes directly produce the vast majority of CO and NO x in the atmosphere. They are also the principal source of gaseous hydrocarbons (also called volatile organic compounds, or VOCs), which combine with NO x in sunlight to create O 3 . Ozone, while important for blocking ultraviolet rays in the upper atmosphere, is also a key component of urban smog and creates human health problems when present in the lower atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide is a trace component of crude oil, and can cause acid rain when released into the air at oil refineries or petroleum power plants. Particulate matter is directly emitted in vehicle exhaust and can also form from the reaction of exhaust gases with water vapor and sunlight. Finally, leaded gasoline is a huge contributor of lead to the atmosphere, and the use of unleaded gasoline has decreased lead concentrations dramatically. The EPA and the World Bank are working to encourage the phaseout of leaded gasoline worldwide.
Petroleum-fueled transportation and coal-burning power plants are considered the chief causes of global warming. Excess amounts of carbon dioxide, methane, and NO x , among other gases, trap heat in the atmosphere and create the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is a main constituent of petroleum fuel exhaust, even though it is not toxic and therefore not classified as a pollutant. About one-third of the CO 2 emitted into the atmosphere every year comes from vehicle exhaust. Methane (NH 3), although usually associated with natural gas, is also emitted whenever crude oil is extracted, transported, refined, or stored.
Pollution caused due to combustion of coal
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Coal is mainly elemental carbon with small amounts of hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen.
On complete combustion of coal, carbon dioxide is the main product formed. This is non-toxic, but contributes to the green house effect if produced in excess.
Small amounts of oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulphur formed are responsible for acid rain.
On incomplete combustion of coal, carbon monoxide and unburnt carbon particles are also formed. This causes carbon monoxide poisoning and formation of smog, blackening of buildings etc.
Pollution caused due to combustion of petroleum products
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Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons. On combustion, it produces mainly carbon dioxide and water vapour.
However, on incomplete combustion, they produce carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons etc. They also produce oxides of nitrogen.
Petrol is an important fraction of petroleum used in motor vehicles. To increase the efficiency of petrol engines, an anti-knock agent, lead tetra ethyl is added to slow down the rate of combustion.
Lead tetra ethyl releases harmful lead compounds into the atmosphere. Lead being a cumulative poison, is extremely toxic.
Ozone Pollution
Ozone pollution is really an increase in the concentration of ozone in the air at ground level. Because sunlight has a critical role in its formation, ozone pollution is principally a daytime problem in the summer months. Ground-level ozone is produced when sunlight combines with hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide, two compounds produced by cars, trucks, factories, and power-generating plants, and found wherever gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, oil, or natural gas are combusted. Urban areas with heavy traffic, and large industrialized communities, are the primary areas with ozone problems.
When temperatures are high and there is little wind, ground-level ozone can reach levels that are dangerous to the health. Weathermen can predict when an area will be subject to high ozone levels and issue alerts according to the Environmental Protection Agency’s Air Quality Index (AQI).
When the AQI is in the moderate, or yellow, category, for ozone, people who are unusually sensitive may experience problems. A higher level of alert (orange, red, purple, or maroon) carries added risk.
When levels are high, people at risk should take simple precautions:
* Stay indoors as much as possible.
* Limit outside activities to the early morning hours or after sunset. Ozone levels tend to go down with the sun.
* Refrain from exercising or working vigorously outdoors when levels are high.
* Stay away from high traffic areas, and avoid exercising near these areas at all times.
* Carpool or use public transportation to help reduce the amount of harmful emissions in the air that contribute to the production of ozone.
* Avoid using gasoline-powered lawn equipment or other gasoline-powered tools.
Other EffectsFossil fuel combustion directly impacts the air, causing widespread pollution. However, chemical reactions in the atmosphere can also lead to harmful effects on land and in water resources. Acid rain, for example, is the product of a chemical reaction involving sulfur dioxide and atmospheric moisture. The resulting acidic precipitation contaminates aquatic environments and pollutes soils.
Prevention/Solution
* Reduction in fossil fuel emissions can lessen or even prevent the impacts of the resulting pollution. Through stricter regulations and enforcement, positive results have already occurred. Sulfur dioxide emissions are more than 70 percent lower based on EPA data from 1980 to 2008. As a result, the environmental effects of acid rain have abated. Since fossil fuels are composed primarily of carbon, other ways, such as development of alternative sources of energy, offer more practical solutions to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.
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. How vehicular pollution affects the body:Suspended Particulate matter (SPM) is emitted by diesel vehicles. Its fumes cause chest infection, brings on asthma and can also cause cancer.
* Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons are emitted by petrol and diesel vehicles and lead to headache, drowsiness, red eyes and cough.
* Carbon Monoxide is thrown into the air by petrol vehicles, chiefly two-and-three wheelers and can bring on ischemic heart disease and affects stamina.
* Lead is emitted from petrol vehicles and can affect the central nervous system and damage the kidneys and cause hypertension.
Who is at risk? All those who live near busy traffic junctions are at high risk for these diseases.
They include:
* People living on busy main roads
* Shopkeepers
* Hawkers
* Porters, carriers, bus commuters
* Walkers
* Traffic policemen
If these are the risks that we are exposed to, we must find our own precautionary measures to combat the ill-effects of gas on the environment.
When levels are high, people at risk should take simple precautions:
* Stay indoors as much as possible.
* Limit outside activities to the early morning hours or after sunset. Ozone levels tend to go down with the sun.
* Refrain from exercising or working vigorously outdoors when levels are high.
* Stay away from high traffic areas, and avoid exercising near these areas at all times.
* Carpool or use public transportation to help reduce the amount of harmful emissions in the air that contribute to the production of ozone.
* Avoid using gasoline-powered lawn equipment or other gasoline-powered tools.
When levels are high, people at risk should take simple precautions:
* Stay indoors as much as possible.
* Limit outside activities to the early morning hours or after sunset. Ozone levels tend to go down with the sun.
* Refrain from exercising or working vigorously outdoors when levels are high.
* Stay away from high traffic areas, and avoid exercising near these areas at all times.
* Carpool or use public transportation to help reduce the amount of harmful emissions in the air that contribute to the production of ozone.
* Avoid using gasoline-powered lawn equipment or other gasoline-powered tools.
