Computers in Human Behavior 18 (2002) 1–10 www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh
Internet and personality
Y. Amichai-Hamburger*
Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, Israel
Abstract The Internet is becoming increasingly influential in our daily lives. The author suggests that the personality of the net user is, for the most part, ignored by Internet designers who decide the future development of the Internet. The main reason for this is the heavy emphasis placed by designers on technological advancement to the detriment of user needs. The author argues that the only way to redress this balance is through a cooperative effort by Internet designers and psychologists working in the field of personality. The article examines the potential contribution of each of these professions toward promoting a genuinely interactive Internet, fully committed to being user-friendly and promoting user well-being. # 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Internet; Personality
1. Introduction The purchase of Time Warner by the Internet Company America on Line (AOL), on 10 January 2000, sent shock waves throughout the world economy. The fact that an Internet supplier had acquired one of the largest international communication companies broke the paradigm held by many people of the Internet as a temporary ephemeral phenomenon. For those of us who use the Internet, it is none of these things; it is a way to complete daily tasks, gather information, and is also a source of entertainment. In a single day, we may check the stock exchange, choose a holiday destination, check out a hotel and order it along with flight tickets. We may also complete transactions at the bank and order our weekly supply of food to be delivered from the supermarket at our convenience. It is fair to argue that for the Internet user, the Internet is not, as is often believed, a replacement for the real world, but rather a part of it. The ability of the Internet to touch almost every aspect of our life—both social and
The Essay on Internet Users Want Laws To Control Junk Email
Internet Users Want Laws to Control Junk Email But Don't Want a Total Band we need laws to control junk email (unsolicited email) on the web According to the results of our 1997 Junk Email Survey, the majority of electronic mail users say yes, we need laws. However, most do not think the laws should ban all unsolicited mail. The survey was conducted from June 23 - July 23, 1997 on our Business ...
* Tel.: +972-3-5318539; fax: +972-3-5350267. E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Amichai-Hamburger).
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professional—is likely to increase over the next few years. This gives the Internet a very real influence over the way we shape our lives (Sproull & Faraj, 1995).
Unlike television where entertainment is provided for the passive participant, the user interacts with the Internet and expresses preferences which are then acted upon by the machine. This gives the Internet a unique, powerful ability, not only to be responsive to the needs of its users, but also to tailor itself to the specific wishes of the individual user. This paper will argue, however, that the Internet is not fulfilling its potential as an interactive tool and that it has far greater capacities than are being utilized at present. The paper will analyze how this situation came about and what steps are necessary to rectify it. How far are Internet suppliers determining social changes and how far are changes being brought about by the preferences of the users? How should this balance be determined and what is its optimum level? Hughes (1994) differentiated three approaches in this field: (1) that technology determines social and cultural changes; (2) that technological changes are determined by social and cultural constructions; and (3) that society shapes and is shaped by technological construction. While the first two theories are straightforward, the third gives a much more complicated picture of the rich interaction between technology and society and how they shape one another.
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The Agricultural And Industrial Revolution The agricultural and industrial revolutions greatly changed daily life in Europe. The agricultural revolution created a widespread social misery of its own when small fields were converted into large farms. The industrial revolution brought people to work in the factories to manufacture goods in increased numbers. With these two factors, the lives of ...
Friedman (2000), when discussing the impact on society of the globalization process, quotes his friend Rabbi Marks who compares the Internet to a modern version of the Tower of Babel. Just as the builders of the biblical Tower of Babel created a universal language and dynamic that removed from people their unique individuality and made them part of a global process, the Internet, as part of a whole globalization process, is in danger of doing the same thing. This paper suggests that it is possible to build on the unique interactive ability of the Internet to create an Internet that does not deny the individual his/her own personality. This could be achieved by the creation of a dialogue of research by Internet designers and psychologists into the interaction between the personality of the user and its impact on the Internet. This would ultimately lead to a whole new design for the Internet, one that would take account of or even improve the well-being of the Internet user. The first part of this article will examine the stereotypes that exist between Internet designers and psychologists, and challenge them in order to open the channels to positive communication and cooperation. The article will then go on to discuss some of the relevant personality theories and their possible influence on the way we use the Internet. The article will conclude with some suggestions as to possible new directions for both research and Internet design using the new data.
2. The existing paradigm of the Internet designers Internet technology is developing at an astounding rate. The pace and scale of these changes for the whole of society are such that this phenomenon has been compared to the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century and dubbed ‘‘The Internet Revolution’’. Interestingly, the comparison with the Industrial Revolution
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may be applicable to other aspects. Just as the driving force of the Industrial Revolution was the development of machinery, the same is true of the technological revolution, and in both cases the human aspect can be said to come in a poor second. Today workplace practices in the developed world have moved on from the Industrial Revolution through scientific management theory (Taylor, 1911) towards Mayo’s (1933) human-centered work environment, which pushed human need to the forefront of industrial development. The same cannot be said for Internet development, where the race for technological growth takes precedence over the human aspect of the Internet’s development. This has been compared to the situation at the time of the Industrial Revolution, when, with few exceptions, managers gave only a cursory nod toward the welfare of their workers and were really only interested in the degree of their productivity. Internet designers generally defend themselves on these issues using two different arguments: (1) the fact that so many people help to shape the development of the Internet by building their own website means that they are part of the Internet structure; and (2) the entire Internet philosophy is based on choice and the freedom of users to make their choices.
The Essay on Censorship And Internet Young People
Censorship and the Internet The Internet is the fastest growing and largest tool for mass communication and information distribution in the world. People use the Internet for communication, expressing their opinions, or obtaining unlimited information access. Nowadays, the issue of wether is it necessary to have censorship on the Internet is being argued all over the world. Censoring the Internet ...
Designers of externally constructed websites go to considerable lengths in order to tailor the site according to the behavioural patterns of the individual on the net and the direct wishes of the net users. This paper rejects these defenses and shows that the ability of an individual user to shape or even influence the Internet is remarkably limited: first, because the new websites put up by private individuals have a very marginal impact on development of the Internet since they are not part of its mainframe, and secondly, because most of these websites conform to the existing patterns. Although Internet designers reiterate that the overriding philosophy of the Internet is freedom of choice for the user, it is clear that these freedoms and choices are given within a very limited range of options. This is because only one aspect of the user is given serious consideration by Internet providers, that is, the user as a customer. Instead of trying to find out what people need from the Internet and how it can be adapted in the widest sense to improve people’s well-being and answer their needs, Internet designers are producing what they believe is good for people or at best being responsive to customers’ demands on an ad hoc basis.
The Essay on Is The Internet Bringing People Closer Together?
How many seconds do you think you can live without having the Internet? For most people, I bet 30 seconds is enough to make them suffer. The Internet is one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century, and we have all witnessed its influence on our lives – it has made family and friends, businessmen and their partners as well as clients, and people around the world closer together. Firstly, the ...
This may be seen as akin to one of the criticisms levelled at modern medicine ‘‘the garage mechanic mentality’’—examining and attempting to ‘‘repair’’ one aspect of the person, not seeing the person as a whole. To borrow another phrase often used to describe the medical profession, the old adage ‘‘we know what’s good for you’’ certainly holds sway in the world of Internet design. The picture drawn by the designers of the Internet creates the impression that both sides, the Internet producers and the Internet users, are equally satisfied with the present arrangements. However, as this paper demonstrates, the situation is not quite as straightforward. Internet users may be divided into four separate groups: (1) those people who use and enjoy the different activities on offer; (2) those people who use only the e-mail system and there are many of those around; (3) a wide spectrum of people who use only a very limited number of services; and (4) people who use a wider range of services, but in a very limited way. For example, people who are ready to use the
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website of their bank for information, but not for any other services. All of these groups are stastically defined as ‘‘Internet users’’, although this clearly does not accurately describe them. Internet producers use such phrases as ‘the global village’ to illustrate not only the significance of the Internet, but also to give the impression that everyone is hooked up, not to mention actually hooked! However, the real figures are quite surprising; only between 3 and 4% of the world population is using the net. Even in the countries with the highest numbers of Internet users, the proportion only reaches 8.4% (http:www.nua.ie) This underlines the very limited form the Internet revolution is really taking. There are obviously many reasons why people do not use the Internet, e.g. lack of technological education, lack of resources, lack of access to a computer, or computer phobia. It appears, however, that many people who do not use the Internet are not prevented from doing so by logistical reasons, but rather because they choose not to do so. Mitchell (2000) argues that most websites are not user friendly. Too many webmasters believe that the most important function of the net is to produce information.
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The Positive Effects of the Internet The Internet has come a very long way in the past 50 years. New innovations such as integrated software and hardware has changed the way that people view and obtain information today. Millions of people worldwide are using the Internet to share information, make new associations and communicate. Individuals and businesses, from students and journalists, to ...
He uses fanciful examples to illustrate the unwelcoming attitude of many websites: imagine going to your local pub and discovering that the entrance has disappeared, or going to drive your car, only to find it has no gear-shift. These examples graphically explain the extreme difficulty many people encounter when trying to navigate one of these many sites. He goes on to recommend that webmasters get advice as to how to build an effective, user-friendly website. Several major websites offer this service, among them: (1) http://useit.com; (2) http://usableweb.com; (3) www.pantos.org/arw/usaable.html; (4) www.nua.ie/nuathinking.html; (5) www. nathan.com/thoughts/recipe; (6) www.tlc-systems.com/webtips.shtml. Close examination, however, revealed that out of the many hundreds of documents contained in these sites, less than five actually mention the term ‘‘personality’’, and in none of these cases did this refer to the personality of the user. In fact, the term ‘‘personality’’ is never used to describe the characteristics of the user, but rather to refer to the ‘‘personality’’ of the website. The advice is that in order to attract users, websites should have a differentiated positive personality. They should also reflect the personality of the organization they represent. This examination further strengthened the perception that webmasters ignore the importance of the whole field of personality in the design and building of their websites.
3. The existing paradigm of the psychologists After virtually ignoring it since its inception, psychologists have recently started to study the Internet. The focus of psychologists has been mainly on the impact of the Internet on its users and on society in general (e.g. Kraut, Patterson, Lundmark, Kiesler, Mukopadhyay, & Scherlis, 1999; McKenna & Bargh, 2000) and also on the use of the Internet as a research tool (e.g. Buchanan & Smith, 1999; Senior & Smith, 1999) In the main, psychologists see the Internet as having a negative impact on society. For example, the study by Kraut et al. (1999) sees the Internet as a limited
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medium divorced from, and a poor substitute for, real life and a cause of loneliness and depression. Siegal, Dubrovsky, Kiesler, and McGuire (1986) reported greater hostility and a more aggressive response during group processes in computer-mediated communication as compared with face-to-face interactions. The Internet Usage Survey (Brenner, 1997) showed that most Internet users report that the Internet interferes with other activities; a percentage of users even report usage-related problems similar to those found in addictions. Another significant trend among psychologists studying the Internet is to see it as a single entity rather than a complex tool and so to ignore its myriad of different services offered (Kraut et al., 1999).
The Essay on How Internet Has Changed People
The Internet has changed a lot over the year and a lot of people really don’t talk to each other anymore instead they talk either on Facebook or another Internet site. With all the things that you can do most families really don’t spend any time with each other anymore because everyone is doing something on the Internet. Now a day’s people can log on the Internet where ever they are. ...
This limited perception of the Internet has important consequences for Internet development. First, it creates the illusion that the Internet and all its ramifications have been fully understood. Secondly, it minimizes the importance of the Internet in our society. Thirdly, it leads to a negative stereotyping of the Internet as a whole, instead of an individual appraisal of its different aspects. Finally, as a consequence, there is little or no communication between psychologists and web designers, both of whom resent the lack of understanding and appreciation for their work. This wall of silence between psychologists and Internet providers has implications for society that are far greater than a professional rift. Given that initial findings as to the effect of Internet use have revealed such serious behaviours as depression, separation from family and friends, and addiction behaviour, it would appear to be of paramount importance that psychologists and Internet designers work together to produce an Internet that promotes ‘‘health and well-being’’, The present situation shows that the two sides have the potential to work together. The potential for this cooperation is described below.
4. The potential for Internet development and psychological cooperation The scope to examine the interaction between the human personality and the wealth of Internet choices is immense. Given the predicted expansion of the Internet and its subsequent influence on our lives, this research is of tremendous importance. It should focus on the interaction capability of the Internet, taking as its standpoint the well-being of the user. This research could also examine and find explanations for the many contradictions on the net. For example, an examination of personality differences may explain why, on some parts of the Internet, people willingly come to the aid of someone who has expressed a need for help, someone they do not know and are very unlikely to meet; while, on the same medium, aggression and violence between groups is rife. Another interesting aspect is the use of anonymity on the web. While this is frequently emphasized, it is important to point out that on a home web page people expose themselves, their home, family and professional life, often in great detail including photographs. Wallace (1999) argues that this creates a unique integration of self that is rarely found in real life. Another seeming contradiction is that while in one respect the relationships displayed on the Internet are random and
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surface; at the same time, there are active, serious, cohesive support and discussion groups. Many personality characteristics are reflected here, as shown in the extraversion and neuroticism scales: the extrovert is a friendly person who seeks company, desires excitement, takes risks, and acts on impulse, whereas the introvert is a quiet, reflective person who prefers his or her own company and does not enjoy large social events; he or she does not crave excitement and may be seen by some as distant and remote. The neurotic person is an anxious, worrying individual who is overly emotional and reacts too strongly to all types of stimuli (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975).
Hamburger and Ben-Artzi (2000) were the first to demonstrate the link between personality and the Internet. They analyzed levels of extraversion and neuroticism and found that these showed different patterns both for men and women in their interaction with the Internet services scale. For men, extraversion was positively linked to the use of leisure services and neuroticism was negatively related to information services. Whereas for women, extraversion was negatively related and neuroticism positively related to the use of social sites. These results are particularly interesting because they confirm earlier studies showing that women have higher self-awareness and are more likely to use the social network for support. The differences found in the extra-neurotic personalities in their Internet behaviour are consistent with those found in the main personality theories. These results are important because they show that personality is a highly relevant factor in determining behaviour on the Internet. It is recommended that the study be extended by examining certain interactions that produce a positive effect for one type of personality, but may produce negative effects for others. Future examination should also assess different personality theories in addition to those mentioned above and assess their influence on Internet usage.
These factors indicate that rather than chasing the needs of the individual customer, web providers would be better served to research and target certain personality types and develop services accordingly. For example, ‘‘Chat’’ is unlikely to have the same effect on an introverted personality as on an extraverted person. Below are several examples of personality types that merit further examination with regard to their impact on Internet usage. Need for closure: people who have a high need for closure are motivated to avoid uncertainties. They tend to ‘‘freeze’’ the epistemic process (Kruglanski & Freund, 1983) and to reach conclusions speedily. They tend to get locked in conceptions and ignore contradicting information. People with a low need for closure are predisposed to unfreeze many alternative hypotheses and to test as many implications of their own hypothesis as possible. This theory has relevance to the question: do most people actually like hyperlinks? According to the orthodoxy of web-builders, hyperlinks are the essence of a good website. It is, however, possible that people who have a high need for closure, namely, a need to have a structured and defined process of decision making, will find the mass of hyperlinks distracting and unnecessary; whereas those people with a low need for closure will feel better in an Internet environment surrounded by hyperlinks. If this personality differentiation is confirmed it may explain why some people do not like the net, while others become
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addicted. It may also suggest to Internet designers that it is worth creating optional servers for users who do not like hyperlinks. This more streamlined website would contain very few hyperlinks. Innovators: an important personality dimension that differentiates between people is the way in which they approach change (Kirton, 1994).
While innovators are nonconformist, creative and feel comfortable in an unstructured situation, conformists need roles and norms and seek stability and order. This personality theory is particularly relevant to web designers, since they are constantly grappling with questions such as to what extent and with what frequency they should change their website to make it more attractive and successful. Is constant change optimal or is it better that the site remain constant? Theory would argue that the answer will depend on the clientele for whom the site is intended. People who are conformists are likely to prefer a website with many constant components and find it stressful if the website is changed frequently; whereas people who are innovators will be stimulated and happy with a website that changes often and will become bored with an unchanging website. Locus of control: people with an external locus of control believe that life events are the result of external factors like chance or luck. People with an internal locus of control believe in their own ability to control their life events (Rotter, 1966, 1982).
These personality characteristics may explain the difference between structured surfers who carefully control their time on the net as opposed to other surfers who ‘‘disappear’’ into the net with little thought of time. This may be a relevant factor in Internet addiction. Attachment: Hazan and Shaver (1987) examined attachment theory in terms of the adult love relationship. They found that the secure style is defined by confidence in the availability of attachment figures in times of need and by comfort with closeness and interdependence. It was found to be related to happy, intimate, and friendly love relationships. The avoidant style is characterized by insecurity concerning others’ intentions and preference for emotional distance. It was also found to be associated with fear of intimacy and difficulty in depending on parents. The anxiousambivalent style is also defined by insecurity concerning others’ responses and with a strong desire for intimacy. It was also associated with passionate love and with a high fear of rejection. The attachment theory may well be relevant in explaining the seeming contradiction between the very shallow relationships that are common on the Internet where, for example, users are able to skip quickly between random matches from all around the globe.
Many of these encounters may last less than a minute. In this case, the ‘‘avoidant’’ surfer is probably seeking contact with no obligation because he/she does not want to rely on others. Whereas the ‘‘anxious’’ surfer in need of stable relationships will need to spend time ‘‘getting to know’’ their potential friend. Personality structure of profile of interests: according to Holland (1985), there are six personality types: (1) The realistic one has a strong preference for activities that entail the explicit, ordered or systematic manipulation of objects, tools, machines, and animals. (2) The investigative type has a strong preference for activities that entail the observational, symbolic, systematic and creative investigation of physical,
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biological, and cultural phenomena in order to understand and control such phenomena. (3) The artistic type has a strong preference for unstructured activities that entail the manipulation of physical, verbal, or human materials to create art forms or products and an aversion to explicit, systemic, and ordered activities. (4) The social type has a strong preference for activities that entail the manipulation of others to inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten. (5) The enterprising type has a strong preference for activities that entail the manipulation of others to attain organizational goals or economic gain. (6) The conventional type has a strong preference for activities that entail the explicit, ordered, systemic manipulation of data; and an aversion to exploratory or unstructured activities. This kind of personality theory may help to explain differences between users as to which services they choose on the Internet. Risk taking: this personality dimension differentiates between people as to the degree to which they are ready to take an action that involves a significant degree of risk (Levenson, 1990).
These personality theories appear to be particularly relevant when assessing user behaviour on the Internet. The risk-taking theory may help to explain which personalities are more likely to be willing to try new services that have a potential or an image of involving some degree of risk or insecurity, for example, banking activities which the great majority of surfers are unwilling to try out. The personality theories expand the potential to understand differences between surfers. This provides new openings for the design of the Internet which may include changes to central components such as hyperlinks, or the degree and frequency with which a site should change. In addition, it is important to learn about the non-users. They may fit several personality profiles. Understanding these profiles may help us obtain the knowledge to make the Internet a better and more welcoming environment for them. To return to Kraut et al., (1999).
As has been illustrated here, Internet users are clearly not a homogeneous entity, but one made up of different personality type; the users differing needs must be catered for. It is necessary to set up long-term studies that profile Internet behaviour and show what is positive and negative for each of the different personality groups. In this way, the Internet may also become a tool to help people analyze their personality characteristics and find out which Internet activities they would enjoy and from which they would derive benefit. Most websites have not succeeded in convincing Internet surfers to open their wallets and buy (www.jup.com), which, brings into question the whole customer paradigm as it presently exists among Internet designers. This is at least partly a result of lack of understanding of the personalities of the users and the non-users, and even potential buyers and non-buyers. Information accumulated about these interactions would change the entire Internet, as increasing numbers of websites would try to cater better to the individual by taking account of his/her personality. Websites that learn the dominant personality profile of their clientele will be better able to focus on their needs. Initial entry to the Internet or a site would offer users the opportunity to go through several personality tests and the site would then recommend specific directions for surfing. Many personality needs that are not answered currently on the net will thus be supplied. These changes may well lead
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many people, who rarely open the Internet because they find it so overwhelming or unwelcoming, to becoming more frequent users.
5. Final word Research in this field is still in its infancy and since most changes advocated are the result of human preferences, as yet undiscovered, predictions at this stage can only be very general. This paper has presented a new vision for the Internet. In order for this vision to be actualized, it must be broken down into many different research projects, each of which is designed to examine different components in the interaction between the user and the net. Gradually, the knowledge accumulated will enable the building of a new Internet. This paper gives several practical suggestions for future studies. One way in which these changes may take effect would be that, once the personality details of the individual user have been understood, it would be possible to place him/her in the appropriate ‘‘channel’’, so that that he/she would receive the website of his/her choice, in a format that suits his/her personality and needs. The site, for example, may have many hyperlinks, some hyperlinks, or none at all; the site may be constant or may have undergone radical changes since the last visit; there may be a focus on social interaction with the surfer or on informational interaction; there may be a focus on emotional or rational channels, and there may or may not be a dazzling array of colours.
To borrow Mitchell’s (2000) metaphor of the Internet site, as it is presently constituted, leaving the thirsty surfer walking round and round the pub looking for the door; in the newly designed ‘‘pub’’ there would be any number of different doors, in different shapes and sizes, designed to suit all of the individual users. The pub would be friendly and welcoming, not only within the confines of the definition of the pub owner. Instead, each would find an atmosphere, either crowded or quiet and service to suit his/her needs. For some, for example, there would be any number of choices of drink and this list would be frequently updated, whereas for others the same drink, or perhaps occasionally one or two others would always be on offer; too many choices make this consumer feel uneasy. To build this vision, full cooperation between psychologists and web builders must be established. Working together in a team should lead to breaking down of paradigms on both sides, and in their place a mutual respect which is likely to lead to a more user-friendly, ‘‘healthy’’ web, that takes into account individual differences. The process of shaping the Internet, using the knowledge accumulated as to the impact of the interaction between users’ personality and user profile behaviour on well-being, is likely to be a long term one. However, this is not a reason not to go forward and ensure that this very powerful technology will be shaped by people. If not, society is likely to be faced with a modern Tower of Babel, in which a single language and a single culture swallow all individuality (Friedman, 2000).
Gradually, a better Internet will emerge, one that uses its unique interactive ability to guarantee a better future for humankind.
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