The pervasiveness of linguistic creativity in everyday conversation
Introduction
Creativity or artfulness is not an exclusive ability of exceptionally skilled users of language but instead is prevalent in everyday practise and is a common feature of everyday language. Previously, linguistic creativity has been associated with particular genres of literature and said to be found in types of writing such as poems, novels and theatrical plays. However it is now argued that other forms of artful language such as word play, metaphor, repetition or rhyme are common features of everyday conversation and by no means unique to literary texts. (Swann, 2006)
Linguists such as Ronald Carter prefer to think of literariness as a continuum and sees texts in grades of more or less literary. He also suggests that there are three main models of literariness for identifying the approach for analysis of creativity in language.
– Inherency models: A textual approach where creativity is considered to be found in particular formal features of
language.
– Sociocultural models: A contextual approach where creativity is decided by the social and cultural context in which
it is used.
– Cognitive models: An approach that considers literary or artful language to be associated with processes of the mind.
(Carter, cited in The Open University, 2006, p. 10)
Labov considers performance to be a way to identify artful language. His theories regarding the structural elements of narrative offer an analytical framework by which to study the form and function narrative plays in interactions.
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In the following analysis I will use the Labovian framework to find out whether my findings are in accordance with some of the current theories and notions of linguists researching creativity in everyday conversation.
Analysis of Band 5: Kitchen Floor
The data is taken from a study by Jennifer Coates on women’s talk. And is part of a sequence of ‘mirroring stories’ which share similar themes and follow on from each other. It is a spontaneous conversation between three of friends, one is the main story teller and the other two the participants.
The story is told using a simple narrative construction and is told in the simple past and past continuous tenses.
Personal pronouns are used to refer to people, verbs are joined by ‘and s’ and there is considerable amount of repetition and other linguistic features which create textual cohesion.
In order to do an analysis to identify whether the story follows a Labovian narrative structure. I have opted for a normal transcription format (see appendix 1) that shows each turn on separate lines, in the order they are spoken. And shows more clearly than other formats that the narrative in the conversation does fit a Labovian structure:
The narrative starts with an abstract to briefly mention what the story is about and to get the listener’s attention.
– It´s like Charles when I was doing the kitchen floor, you see.
It has an orientation which gives information of who, what, why and when, to sets the scene and give more contextual information to the other participants.
– He told me when I started it that I was mad to take on the job, that I wouldn’t do it and he wasn’t going to help me.
There are a series of complicating actions which provide the main body of the story and give more detail.
– He said, “ I’m not going to help you with this you’re doing it on your own”
– I said,“yeah ok,”cos there’s nothing I like more than a challenge.
– And he actually did do that, he stood and leaned against [(the side in the kitchen) telling me he was dePREssed
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Extract: “When the doctors came they said she died of heart disease–of joy that kills.” Write a persuasive essay of between 500 – 700 words in response to the following question: Early in the story we learn that Mrs. Mallard is “afflicted with heart trouble,” though her unexpected reaction to her husband’s death may suggest and alternative reason for her poor health. What was the cause of Mrs. ...
and he was gonna take the nearest bottle of sleeping tablets….
There is a resolution to describe the final events and draw the story to a close.
– That he’d been driven to it, that afternoon he was gonna end it all.
A coda which is in the present continuous tense and refers to and reinforces the underlying theme.
– While I’m humping 25 kilos of cement across the kitchen.
And a question in the present simple tense, which takes the speakers out of the story and into the present moment.
– And did you ((xxxx)) that cement before you did it?
(Labov, cited in The Open University,2006, p. 57)
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Continuing my analysis of the textual features of the narrative I have chosen a Stave Format (see Appendix 2) which places all the speakers in the same stave on separate lines.
The reasoning being, the ‘Kitchen Floor’ conversation has several speakers who sometimes talk simultaneously. And the stave format shows more clearly the dialogical nature of the narrative and the supporting talk and makes it easier to see who is talking and when in relation to the other participants.
During the conversation the narrator’s creative use of language and evaluation helps to shape the story by depicting events and people in a certain way. She is able to position herself and make a stance by expressing emotions or opinions and to dramatise events. The use of direct speech (rather than reported speech) animates and brings the characters to life, and all of these elements create interest in the story.
The narrator successfully engages the interest of the participants who then contribute to the interaction with both verbal and non verbal responses.
The ‘Kitchen Floor’ has lexical, syntactical and discoursal features of this kind of linguistic creativity, which I will demonstrate using examples from the transcription.
Lexis which intensify the meaning of the word can be used to dramatise the story being told.
– Dare
– Mad
– Sweating
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Mothering is nature’s way to make sure that a child is able to grow and prosper in the world. That one day that child may also experience parenting and share the bond that grows between children and their parents. The Mother, in the short story The Word Love, sympathizes with this description of a mother’s duty but is torn between the love for her daughter, and the values of her ...
– Humping
– Awful
Paralinguistic features such as loudness and tone of voice emphasise what is being said.
– he didn’t DARE say anything, so he had to SIT and EAT it with his FINgers.
– telling me he was dePREssed
– which he HATES
Lengthening vowels draws attention to the word; sooo in this case is also modifying the word arrogant.
– He’s sooo (arrogant)
The repetition of the word yeah nine times and yes twice is a way to back channel and give feedback to the narrator and show the participants involvement. It is also a positive affirmation and a reply to a question.
– Yeah I can imagine yeah
– I said,“yeah ok,”cos there’s nothing I like more than a chall[enge
Syntactic echoing shows there is a shared mutual viewpoint and a growing rapport between the participants.
– they love saying things [like that
[And he actually did do that,
Repetition can also refer back to and emphasises words previously spoken. In this example one of the participants starts to join in with the narration.
– leaning on the door while he’s saying it
– he stood and leaned against [(the side in the kitchen) telling me he was dePREssed
[the door
Themes can also be referred back to and repeated. In this example the theme is of John´s increasing depression which is leading to desperation. In this example the repetition is also a metaphorical play with words.
– and he was gonna take
– he felt, he felt like reaching for the water (metaphorical wine)
– the nearest bottle of sleeping tablets he was gonna take.
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Another device that gives emphasis to a theme and can also be used to position the narrator, is a three part list.
– He told me when I started it that I was mad to take on the job,
– that I wouldn’t do it
– and he wasn’t going to help me
Which in the narration is directly followed by a statement of reason (signalled by the word because) to highlight how sane the narrator is after being called mad by John.
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– I said,“yeah ok,”cos there’s nothing I like more than a chall[enge
Followed by a second three part list which depicts the narrator as lucid and ready for a challenge while raising doubts about John’s state of mind.
– He was gonna take the nearest bottle of sleeping tablets.
– That he’d been driven to it.
– that afternoon he was gonna end it all.
Introducing uncertainty into the narrative can add doubt and intrigue and create a more dramatic effect.
– the nearest bottle of sleeping tablets he was gonna take. But did he take the sleeping tablets?
– that he’d been driven to it But had he been driven to it?
– that afternoon he was gonna end it all. But did he end it all?
Another way to animate a story and bring the characters to life is by direct quoting what was said. It also encourages the participants to infer something about the characters.
– He said, “ I’m not going to help you with this, you’re doing it on your own”
– I said,“yeah ok,”
In this second example of direct speech the participant (not the narrator) has stepped into the story and is actually speaking to John in the present as if he were in the room.
– Yes John, it’s awful isn’t it
Another way to bring the story into the present is by stepping outside the story and externally evaluating a point.
– I said,“yeah ok,”cos there’s nothing I like more than a chall[enge [they love saying things [like that
word play and metaphor
My findings accord with the linguistic features mentioned by Ronald Carter’s in his study, Language: Corpus, creativity and cognition. As many of the same features are present in the ´Kitchen Floor’.
Carter argues that ‘metaphor is not just a literary device but a inherent feature of language’ and believes that ‘literary metaphor is an extension of everyday figurative language’.
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In the narrative this is confirmed by the pun, ‘reaching for the water’, a play on a common saying ‘reaching for the bottle’ where water is a metaphor for wine.
There are many examples of repetition, syntactic echoing and pattern reinforcing, mentioned by Carter in his study.
As well as instances of laughter which accords with Carter’s notion that participants are placed in a more active, evaluative position and are prompted to respond. (Carter, 1999)
Thinking creatively
Guy Cook suggests that ‘by surrendering to creative, poetic language, we allow our minds to range more freely thinking creatively through a process which yields new associations and new ideas’.
‘The Kitchen Floor’ is a spontaneous, unplanned conversation between friends and certainly shows considerable amount of creative improvisation in the co-construction of a story. It is certainly far from a list of events by one dominant speaker. (Cook , 2006)
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Constructing identity
Micheal Toolan writes ‘storytelling is a way of telling listeners about ourselves and the people we know (..) narratives are a representation of experience and stories are often highly structured with artful uses of language, clever phrasing and word play to represent events from a particular perspective (..) the narrator may highlight or downplay elements of a story to create a certain version of events.
The use of three part lists by the narrator shows how she artfully positions herself and she creates her own identity as a sane, ready for a challenge kind of person while depicting John as the depressed suicidal character. (Toolan 2006)
Bhaya Nair also argues that inference plays a major role in narrative conversation and creation of identity.
‘In telling a story tellers give information about their identity as the listener can derive information,(..) The teller conveys information (..) to present and position themselves and has the ability to make and remake their identity’.
(Nair, 2002)
Double voicing
Goffman views interaction as a performance where the speaker actively influences his audience.
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The participants are obviously influenced by the narrator as they laugh and join in with the interaction.
(Goffman cited in The Open University, 2006, p. 103)
Baktins notion of double voicing where speakers, use someone else’s discourse and insert a new semantic intention by the use of metaphor or irony. Is heard when one of the participants steps into the story and uses sarcasm to speak to John, ‘Yes it’s awful isn’t it John’.
(Baktin cited in The Open University 2006, p 137)
Conclusion
Telling stories or anecdotes is motivated by the desire to create friendships and creates a feeling of belonging to a group.
In particular mirroring stories express shared values and also show a convergence of opinion between the participants in the group. We can see from the ‘Kitchen floor’ story that storytelling is an extremely pleasurable activity and can be very entertaining for the participants involved. It is also cooperative and highly creative linguistic activity and clearly not an exclusive skill of a few talented word smiths but all pervasive in everyday language.
Words 2131
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Appendix 1
Transcription Jennifer Coats Band 5: Kitchen Floor
Lady 2) And he undid the paper and like put a little bit of salt on and I handed them to him, you know, and he looked
at me and he didn’t DARE say anything, so he had to SIT and EAT it with his FINgers (.)
Lady 1) (laughs)
Lady 2) which he HATES but I was gonna make a point of the fact that I was not going to put it on a plate and do the
whole BIT and make the [tea
————————————————————————————————————————————————
Lady 1) [It´s like Charles when I was doing the kitchen floor, you [see
Lady 2) [He’s sooo (arrogant)
Lady 1) He told me when I started it that I was mad to take on the job, that I wouldn’t do it
Lady 2) Yeah
Lady 1) and he wasn’t going to help me
Lady 2) leaning on the door while he’s saying it
Lady 3) Yeah I can imagine yeah
Lady 1) He said, “ I’m not going to help you with this
Lady 2) Yeah
Lady 1) you’re doing it on your own”
Lady 2) Yeah
Lady 1) I said,“yeah ok,”cos there’s nothing I like more than a chall[enge
Lady 2) [they love saying things [like that
Lady 1) [And he actually did do that,
he stood and leaned
Lady 2) Yeah
Lady 1) against [(the side in the kitchen) telling me he was dePREssed
Lady 3) [the door
Lady 3) Yes
Lady 1) and he was gonna take
Lady 2) and you’re [sweating away (xxxx)
Lady3) [he felt, he felt like reaching for the water
Lady 1) the nearest bottle of sleeping tablets he was gonna take. That he’d been driven to it,
[that afternoon he was gonna end it all.
Lady ) [Yeah
Lady 2) And you’re going
Lady 1) While
Lady 2) yes John it’s awful isn’t it
Lady 1) I’m humping 25 kilos of cement [across the kitchen.
Lady 3) [And did you ((xxxx)) that cement before you did it?
Lady 1) Yeah
Lady 2) Aaaa!
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Appendix 2
Transcription in stave format
Jennifer Coats Band 6: Kitchen Floor
Lady 1)
Lady 2) And he undid the paper and like put a little bit of salt on and I handed them to him, you know, and he looked
Lady 3) ————————————————————————————————————————————————Lady 1)
Lady 2) at me and he didn’t DARE say anything, so he had to SIT and EAT it with his FINgers (.)
Lady 3) ————————————————————————————————————————————————Lady 1)
Lady 2) which he HATES but I was gonna make a point of the fact that I was not going to put it on a plate and do the
Lady 3)
————————————————————————————————————————
Lady 1) [It´s like Charles when I was doing the kitchen floor, you [see
Lady 2) whole BIT and make the [tea [He’s sooo (arrogant)
Lady 3)
——————————————————————————————————————————————-Lady 1) He told me when I started it that I was mad to take on the job, that I wouldn’t do it = = and he wasn’t
Lady 2) =Yeah =
Lady 3)
————————————————————————————————————————————————
Lady 1) going to help me = = He said,
Lady 2) = leaning on the door while he’s saying it =
Lady 3) = Yeah I can imagine yeah =
————————————————————————————————————————————————
Lady 1) “ I’m not going to help you with this = = you’re doing it on your own” = = I said, “yeah ok,” Lady 2) = Yeah = = yeah =
Lady 3)
————————————————————————————————————————
Lady 1) cos there’s nothing I like more than a chall[enge [And he actually did do that,
Lady 2)
Lady 3) [they love saying things [like that
————————————————————————————————————————————————
Lady 1) he stood and leaned = = against [(the side in the kitchen) telling me he was dePREssed =
Lady 2) = Yeah =
Lady 3) [the door = Yes =
————————————————————————————————————————————————
Lady 1) = and he was gonna take = the nearest bottle
Lady 2) and you’re [sweating away (xxxx)
Lady 3) [he felt, he felt like reaching for the water =
————————————————————————————————————————————————
Lady 1) of sleeping tablets he was gonna take. That he’d been driven to it, [that afternoon he was gonna end it all.
Lady 2) [Yeah
Lady 3)
———————————————————————————————————————————————— Lady 1) =While = I’m humping 25 kilos of cement [across the kitchen.
Lady 2) And you’re going = = yes John it’s awful isn’t it (Laughs)
Lady 3) [And did you
————————————————————————————————————————————————
Lady 1) =Aaaa!
Lady 2) =Yeah =
Lady 3) ((xxxx)) that cement before you did it? =
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Transcription conventions
( . ) Pause of less than a second
help you with this = = you’re doing it Interruptions
= yeah =
[he said] Overlapping speech
[yeah]
(( xxx)) Inaudible speech
(humping) Hard to discern / my guess
Non verbal response
DARE Heavy stress
HATES Loudly spoken /shouted
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Bibliography
Carter, R (1999) Reading A: Extracts from Common Language: corpus, creativity and cognition, in Maybin, J. and Swan, J, (eds) (2006) The Art of English: Everyday Creativity, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan/Milton Keynes, The Open University.
Cook, G (2006) Reading B: Why Play With Language?, in Maybin, J. and Swan, J, (eds) The Art of English: The Art of the Everyday, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan/Milton Keynes, The Open University.
Nair, R, B (2002) Reading C: Implicature and Impliculture in the short, short story and the tall, tall tale, in Maybin, J. and Swan, J, (eds) The Art of English: The Art of the Everyday, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan/Milton Keynes, The Open University.
Swann, J (2006) The Art of English: The Art of creativity, in Maybin, J. and Swan, J, (eds) The Art of Everyday, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan/Milton Keynes, The Open University.
The Open University (2006) The Art of the Everyday: The Art of English: Everyday Creativity, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan/Milton Keynes, The Open University.
The Open University (2006) Telling Stories: The Art of English, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan/Milton Keynes, The Open University.
The Open University (2006) Putting on the style: The Art of English: The Art of Everyday Everyday Creativity, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan/Milton Keynes, The Open University. P. 10.
The Open University (2006) Putting on the style: The Art of English: The Art of Everyday Everyday Creativity, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan/Milton Keynes, The Open University.
Toolan, M (2006) The Art of English: The Art of creativity, in Maybin, J. and Swan, J, (eds) Telling Stories, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan/Milton Keynes, The Open University.
