Most materials doesn’t exist in its pure shape , it is always exist as a ores . During the present century the scope of metallurgical science has expanded enormously , so that the subject can now be studied under the following headings : a) Physical metallurgy b) Extraction metallurgy c) Process metallurgy In the recent years studying the metallurgy science gave to humanity an ever growing range of useful alloys. Whilst many of these alloys are put to purposes of destruction, we must not forget that others have contributed to the material progress of mankind and to his domestic comfort.
This understanding of the materials resources and nature enable the engineers to select the most appropriate materials and to use them with greatest efficiency in minimum quantities whilst causing minimum pollution in their extraction, refinement and manufacture. Selection of materials : Let’s now start by looking at the basic requirements for selecting materials that are suitable for a particular application. For example figure 1 shows a connecter joining electric cables. The plastic casing has been partly cut away to show the metal connector.
Plastic is used for the outer casing because it is a good electrical insulator and prevents electric shock if a person touches it. It also prevents the conductors touching each other and causing a short circuit. As well as being a good insulator the plastic is cheap, tough, and easily moulded to shape. It has been selected for the casing because of these properties – that is, the properties of 1 Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood toughness, good electrical insulation, and ease of moulding to shape. It is also a relatively low cost material that is readily available.
The Essay on Biodegradable Plastic From Cassava (Manihot Esculenta)
The study aims to produce biodegradable plastic using cassava starch as its main component. Cassava starch was mixed with water, epoxydized soya bean oil (ESBO), glycerol, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). The mixture was then compressed and tested. Three preparations were made from the mixture. The first preparation contained 50 grams starch, 50 grams water, 50 grams PVA, 2.5 grams ESBO, and 2.5 grams ...
The metal joining piece and its clamping screws are made from brass. This metal has been chosen because of its special properties. These properties are good electrical conductivity, ease of extruding to shape, ease of machining (cutting to length, drilling and tapping the screw threads ), adequate strength and corrosion resistance. The precious metal silver is an even better conductor, but it would be far too expensive for this application and it would also be too weak and soft. Figure 1. The electrical connector. Another example as in figure 2 shows the connecting rod of a motor car engine. This is made from a special steel alloy.
This alloy has been chosen because it combines the properties of strength and toughness with the ability to be readily forged to shape and finished by machining. Figure 2. The connecting rod of motor car engine. Thus the reasons for selecting the materials in the above examples can be summarized as : ? Commercial factors such as: Cost, availability, ease of manufacture. ? Engineering properties of materials such as: Electrical conductivity, strength, toughness, ease of forming by extrusion, forging and casting, machinability and corrosion resistance. ? Engineering Materials Engineering materials: Msc.
Shaymaa Mahmood Almost every substance known to man has found its way into the engineering workshop at some time or other. The most convenient way to study the properties and uses of engineering materials is to classify them into ‘families’ as shown in figure below: Figure 3. classification of engineering materials. 1. Metals 1. 1 Ferrous metals ? These are metals and alloys containing a high proportion of the element iron. ? They are the strongest materials available and are used for applications where high strength is required at relatively low cost and where weight is not of primary importance. As an example of ferrous metals such as : bridge building, the structure of large buildings, railway lines, locomotives and rolling stock and the bodies and highly stressed engine parts of road vehicles. ? The ferrous metals themselves can also be classified into “families’, and these are shown in figure 4. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 4. Classification of ferrous metals. 1. 2 Non – ferrous metals ? These materials refer to the remaining metals known to mankind. ? The pure metals are rarely used as structural materials as they lack mechanical strength.
The Term Paper on All About Civil Engineering
Broadly defined, engineering is the science-based profession by which the physical forces of nature and the properties of matter are made useful to humanity in the form of structures, machines, and other products or processes at a reasonable expenditure of time and money. Civil Engineering is a broad engineering discipline that incorporates many different aspects of engineering. As a CE, you ...
They are used where their special properties such as corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity are required. Copper and aluminum are used as electrical conductors and, together with sheet zinc and sheet lead, are use as roofing materials. ? They are mainly used with other metals to improve their strength. ? Some widely used non-ferrous metals and alloys are classified as shown in figure 5. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 5. Classification of non-ferrous metals and alloys. 2. Non – metallic materials 2. Non – metallic (synthetic materials ) These are non – metallic materials that do not exist in nature, although they are manufactured from natural substances such as oil, coal and clay. Some typical examples are classified as shown in figure 6. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 6. classification of synthetic materials. ? They combine good corrosion resistance with ease of manufacture by moulding to shape and relatively low cost. ? Synthetic adhesives are also being used for the joining of metallic components even in highly stressed applications. 2. Non – metallic (Natural materials ) Such materials are so diverse that only a few can be listed here to give a basic introduction to some typical applications. ? Wood: This is naturally occurring fibrous composite material used for the manufacture of casting patterns. ? Rubber :This is used for hydraulic and compressed air hoses and oil seals. Naturally occurring latex is too soft for most engineering uses but it is used widely for vehicle tyres when it is compounded with carbon black. ? Glass : This is a hardwearing, abrasion-resistant material with excellent weathering properties.
It is used for electrical insulators, laboratory equipment, optical components in measuring instruments etaand, in the form of fibers, is used to reinforce plastics. It is made by melting together the naturally occurring materials : silica (sand), limestone (calcium carbonate ) and soda (sodium carbonate).
The Essay on Touch Up Paints Metal Temperature Oxidation
Does treating metal reduce the effects of weathering in a California climate This experiment deals with the elements of weather against metal; wind, rain, solar radiation, oxidation (uniting a substance with oxygen), and heat (the presence and absence of). My hypothesis is that the painted protected metal will fare better than the bare metal during the weathering. The reason I believe this will ...
? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood ? Emery : This is a widely used abrasive and is a naturally occurring aluminum oxide. Nowadays it is produced synthetically to maintain uniform quality and performance. ? Ceramic: These are produced by baking naturally occurring clays at high temperatures after moulding to shape.
They are used for high – voltage insulators and high – temperature – resistant cutting tool tips. ? Diamonds: These can be used for cutting tools for operation at high speeds for metal finishing where surface finish is greater importance. For example, internal combustion engine pistons and bearings. They are also used for dressing grinding wheels. ? Oils : Used as bearing lubricants, cutting fluids and fuels. ? Silicon : This is used as an alloying element and also for the manufacture of semiconductor devices. These and other natural, non-metallic materials can be classified as shown in figure 7.
Composite materials (composites ) These are materials made up from, or composed of, a combination of different materials to take overall advantage of their different properties. In man-made composites, the advantages of deliberately combining materials in order to obtain improved or modified properties was understood by ancient civilizations. An example of this was the reinforcement of air-dried bricks by mixing the clay with straw. this helped to reduce cracking caused by shrinkage stresses as the clay dried out. In more recent times, horse hair was used to reinforce the plaster used on the walls and ceiling of buildings.
Again this was to reduce the onset of drying cracks. Nowadays, especially with the growth of the plastics industry and the development of high-strength fibers, a vast range combinations of materials is available for use in composites. For example, carbon fiber reinforced frames for tennis rackets and shafts for golf clubs have revolutionized these sports. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 7. Classification of natural materials. Factors affecting materials properties: The following are the more important factors which can be influence the properties and performance of engineering materials. Engineering Materials 1. Heat treatment Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood This is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to change their properties to improve their performance or to facilitate processing. An example of heat treatment is the hardening of a piece of highcarbon steel rod. If it is heated to dull red heat and plunged into cold water to cool it rapidly (quenching), it will become hard and brittle. If it is again heated to dull red heat but allowed to cold very slowly it will become softer and less brittle (more tough).
The Essay on Atomic Mass Element Atoms Metals
Chapter Three Summary: Atoms and atom's structure Ancient Greek Philosophers suggested that matter was composed of individual particles, which was proved by the theory of John Dalton. The main provisions of his theory are: 1. All matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. 2. All atoms of a particular element are identical but the atoms of one element differ from the atoms of ...
In this condition it is said to be annealed.
After the heat treatment happened on the material it will be in its best condition for flow forming, during flow forming (working) the grains will be distorted and this will result in most metals becoming work hardened if flow formed at room temperature. To remove any locked in stresses resulting from the forming operations and to prepare the material for machining, the material has to be normalized. 2. Processing Hot –and cold working process will be referred to understand what is meant by terms hot and cold working as applied to metals. Figure 8 shows examples of hot and cold working. Figure 8.
Examples of (a) hot-working and (b) cold-working process. Metal is hot worked or cold worked depending upon the temperature at which it is flow formed to shape . These temperatures are not easy to define . for instance , lead hot works at room temperature and can be beaten into complex shapes without cracking , but steel does not hot work until it is red hot . When metal are examined under the microscope it can be seen that they consist of very small grains. When most metals are bent or worked ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood at room temperature (cold worked) these grains become distorted and the metal becomes hard and brittle .
When metals are hot worked the crystals are also distorted. however, they reform instantly into normal crystals because the process temperature is above the temperature of recrystallisation for the metal being used and work hardening does not occur. this cold working is the flow forming of metals below the temperature the recrystallisation, whilst hot working is the flow forming of metals above the temperature of recrystallisation. 3. Environmental reactions The properties of materials can also be effected by reaction with environment in which they are used.
For example: Resting of steel Unless steel structures are regularly maintained by rest neutralization and painting process, resting will occur. The rest will eat into the steel, reduce its thickness and, therefore, its strength. In extreme cases an entire structure made from steel may be eaten away. Dezincification of brass Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and when brass is exposed to a marine environment for along time, the salt in the sea water pray react with the zinc content of the brass so as remove it and leave it behind on spongy, porous mass of copper. This obviously weakness he material which fails under normal working conditions. Degradation of plastic Many plastic degrade and become weak and brittle when exposed to the ultraviolet content of sunlight. Special dyestuffs have to be incorporated into the plastic to filter out these harmful rays. ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Metal Structure and Bounding in Materials : Introduction:Although the properties of the metals used widely they all had one thing in common. No matter what their composition, no matter what changes they had gone through during extraction from the ore, refinement and processing, they were all crystalline.
The Term Paper on Theory Of One Electron Spectrum And Fine Structure Sodium
Contents 1. Introduction 1. 1 Objectives 2. Theory 2. 1 Theory of One-Electron Spectrum and Fine Structure of Sodium 2. 2 Theory of Zeeman Effort 3. Procedures 3. 1 Diffraction Grating Spectrometer 3. 2 Fabry-Perot Interferometer 3. 3 Part 1: Helium Spectrum 3. 4 Part 2: t 1 s Order Sodium Spectrum 3. 5 Part 3: Yellow D-line in the Sodium Spectrum 3. 6 Part 4: Normal Zeeman Effort 4. Experimental ...
Atoms:Not so very long ago, in our early chemistry lessons, we used to say that the atom was the smallest unit of which matter was composed and was indivisible. Also the atom is considered as the basic structural unit of matter Now, it is not quite so simple as that, and the chemist no longer regards the atom as being in the nature of an in destructible little billiard-ball which is held by some mysterious force of attraction to its neighbors. Each atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a sufficient number of negatively charged electrons so that the charges are balanced and neutrons which carry no charge.
The number of electrons identifies the atomic number and the element of the atom. When the atoms have gained or lost one or more electrons, it is called as” Ions”. Losing of an electron makes the atom electropositive since there will be a positively charged proton without its balancing electron. Such an ion is called a positive ion. While gaining an electron makes the atom electronegative since there is no spare positively charged proton in the nucleus to balance the additional electron. Such an ion is called a negative ion.
The Essay on Atomic Theory Atom Electrons Thompson
In ancient Greek the word atom meant the smallest indivisible particle that could be conceived. The atom was thought of as indestructible; in fact, the Greek word for atom means "not divisible." Knowledge about the size and make up of the atom grew very slowly as scientific theory progressed. What we know / theorize about the atom now began with a core theory devised by Democritus, a Greek ...
Chemical properties are related to the numbers of electrons and protons present and in this respect there are altogether ninety-two basically different types of atom which occur naturally. Of late the scientists have succeeded in building up a series of new ones. When two or more atoms, either of one type or of different types, are joined together chemically, the unit which is produced is called a molecule. In a similar way the gases fluorine and chlorine, with seven electrons in the outer shell in each case, have like chemical properties. Both are gases 1 Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood at normal temperatures and pressures) with strongly non-metallic properties. Many of the similarities and differences among the elements can be explained by their respective atomic structures as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Simple model of atomic structure for several elements : (a) hydrogen , (b) helium, (c) fluorine, (d) neon, (e) sodium. We might infer that there is a maximum number of electrons that can be contained in a given orbit. This turns out to be correct, and the maximum is defined by: Maximum number of electrons in an orbit = 2 n2 where n identifies the orbit, with n = 1 closest to the nucleus.
The number of electrons in the outermost shell, relative to the maximum number allowed, determines to a large extent the atom’s chemical affinity for other atoms. These outer shell electrons are called valence electrons. For example, since a hydrogen atom has only one electron in its single orbit, it readily combines with another hydrogen atom to form a hydrogen molecule H2. For the same reason, hydrogen also reacts readily with various other elements (for example, to form H2O).
In the helium atom, the two electrons in its only orbit are the maximum allowed [2n2 = 2(l)2 = 2]. nd so helium is very stable. Neon is stable for the same reason. Its outermost orbit (n = 2) has eight electrons (the maximum allowed), so neon is an inert gas. In contrast to neon, fluorine has one fewer electron in its outer shell (n =2) than the maximum allowed and is readily attracted to other elements that might share an electron to make a more stable set. The sodium atom seems divinely made for the situation, with one electron in its outermost orbit. It reacts strongly with fluorine to form the compound sodium fluoride, as pictured in Figure 2. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood
Figure 2. The sodium fluoride molecule, formed by the transfer of the extra electron of the sodium atom to complete the outer orbit of the fluorine atom. At the low atomic numbers considered here, the prediction of the number of electrons in the outer orbit is straightforward. As the atomic number increases to higher levels, the allocation of electrons to the different orbits becomes somewhat more complicated. Bonding in Materials: It depends on the bonding between atoms and molecules where the atoms are held together in molecules by various types of bonds that depends on the valence electrons.
By comparison , molecules are attracted to each other by weaker bonds, which generally result from the electron configuration in the individual molecules. Thus , we have the following types of bonding : 1. Ionic Bond In the ionic bond, the atoms of one element give up their outer electron(s), which an in turn attracted to the atoms of some other element to increase their electron count in the outermost shell to eight, as shown in figure 3. This bond is naturally provides a very Strong bond between atoms and as a properties of solid materials with the ionic bonding include low electrical conductivity and poor ductility.
Figure 3. Ionic bond . ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood As an example of this bond is the Sodium chloride (table salt) is a more common example. Because of the transfer of electrons between the atoms, sodium and chlorine ions are formed as shown in this reaction : Na + + Cl ? > Na +Cl ? 2. Covalent Bond In the covalent bond, electrons are shared (as opposed to transferred) between atoms in their outermost shells to achieve a stable set of eight. as shown in figure 4. Figure 4. Covalent bond.
Solids with covalent bonding generally possess high hardness and low electrical conductivity . As an example of covalent bond the molecule of the gas methane ( CH4 ) , four hydrogen atoms are combined with one carbon atom. The carbon atom has four electrons in its outer shell, but these are joined by four more electrons, contributed singly by each of the four hydrogen atoms as shown in figure 5. H H—C—H H (ii) Figure 5. (i) Covalent Bonding in a Molecule of Methane, CH4. (ii) Chemists express the structural formula for the methane molecule. . Metallic Bond It is the atomic bonding mechanism in pure metals and metal alloys. The metallic bonding involves the sharing of outer shell electrons by all atoms to form a general electron cloud that permeates the entire block as shown in figure 6. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood ELECTRON ‘CLOUD’ Figure 6 . Diagrammatic Representation of the “Metallic Bond”. This cloud provides the attractive forces to hold the atoms together and form a strong, rigid structure in most cases.
Because of the general sharing of electrons and their freedom to move within the metal, metallic bonding provides typical properties of materials characterized such as good electrical conductivity , good conduction of heat and good ductility. 4. Van der Waal’s Force They are very small forces of attraction acting between atoms in cases where the formation of ionic or covalent bonds is not possible. Basically similar forces also act between atoms which are already bounded in neighboring molecules , giving rise to weak Van der Waal’s forces between long-chain molecules in polymers. Crystalline Structures :
Many substances, including metals, have a crystalline structure in the solid state. Metal crystals from when the molten metals cools and solidifies, where as crystals of other substances, for example copper sulphate, and sodium chloride ( salt ), form when a saturated solution of compound evaporates causing the solid to crystallize out. In crystalline structure , the atoms are located at regular and recurring positions in three dimension . The pattern may be replicated millions of times within a given crystal. The structure can be viewed in the form of a unit cell, which is the basic geometric grouping of atoms that is repeated. Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood There are several types of pattern in which metallic atoms can arrange them selves on solidification , but the most common is as follows :1. Body-Centered-Cubic [BCC] As shown in figure 7 (a), as an example of the materials for this type : Chromium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Tungsten, Iron. 2. Face-Centered-Cubic [FCC] As shown in figure 7 (b), as an example of the materials for this type : Aluminum, Copper, Lead, Nickel, Iron, Gold, Silver. 3. Hexagonal-Closed-Packed [HCP] As shown in figure 7 (c), as an example of the materials for this type : Beryllium, Cadmium, Magnesium, Zinc.
(a) (b) c) Figure 7 The three principle types of structural in which metallic elements crystallize : (a) Body-Centered-Cubic (b) Face-Centered-Cubic (c) Hexagonal-Closed-Packed. There are some metals that are undergo a change of structure at different temperatures. Iron metal for example is arranged in a bodycentered-cubic ( BCC ) at room temperature, when the metal is heated and reaches a temperature of 910? C, the atoms rearrange themselves into Face-Centered-Cubic ( FCC ) crystals. If the metal is heated to the still higher temperature of 1400? C the atoms again rearrange themselves, this time back into Body-Centered-Cubic form. Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures: The noncrystalline solids materials do not have their basic particles arranged in a geometric patter. Their particles have a random formation, and such as a result, such substances are said to be amorphous (without shape).
Many important materials are noncrystalline: liquids and gases, for example. Water and air have a noncrystal structures. A metal loses its crystalline structure when it is melt. Such as glass, plastics and rubber are materials that fall into this category.
While many important plastics are mixture of crystalline and noncrystalline forms. Two closely related features differentiate noncrystalline from crystalline materials :1. Absence of long – range order in the molecular structure of a noncrystalline. It can be visualized with reference to figure 8. They closely packed and repeating pattern of the crystal structure and random arrangement of atoms in the noncrystalline materials. Figure 8. Difference in structure between (a) crystalline and (b) noncrystalline materials. 2. Differences in melting and thermal expansion characteristics. It could be demonstrated by a metal when it is melts.
When the metal is molten an increase in volume compared to the material’s solid crystalline state. This effect is characteristic most materials when melted ( a noble exception is ice; liquid water is denser than ice).
? Engineering Materials The crystalline state : Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood As we mention before, that all of the metals and its alloys have crystalline structure where the atoms are rearranged in an organized shapes which it is called as the crystal lattice. This lattice consisted of another smallest grouping of atoms each one is called the unit cell as shown in figure 9. Figure 9.
Representation of part of a space lattice with a unit cell outlined. The unit cell is the smallest parallel surfaces of the crystalline structure that can be removed or repeated in different directions. It is also differ from each other in shape or size in the crystalline lattice from one material to another. The atoms that belongs to the unit cell are called the basic atoms, its number is different from one shape of arrangement to another, this number can be found from the following equation:- N = NC + NI + NF where N : is the number of the basic atoms in the unit cell. NC : is the number of the atoms in the corner.
NI : is the number of the atoms in side the cube. NF : is the number of the atoms in the center of the face. For the Body-centered-cubic (BCC), it is obvious that the unit cell have just two atoms the first one in the corner of the cube and the second in the center of the cube (that share the unit cell with each atom in the corner ) as in the equation: N = 8* 1/8 + 1 = 2 As for the Face-centered-cubic (FCC) it is calculated by the equation below: N = 8 * 1/8 + 6 * 1/2 = 4 Finally for the Hexagonal-closed-packed (HCP) is also calculated as follows : N = 12 * 1/6 + 3 + 2 * 1/2 = 6 ? Engineering Materials
Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood The atomic packing factor [A. P. F]: It can be defined as the ratio between the volume of the basic atoms of the unit cell (which represent the volume of all atoms in one unit cell ) to the volume of the unit cell it self. For cubic crystals, there is one constant to be quoted. The unit cell constant of pure metal crystals can be directly related to the atomic diameter of the element as below:1. Body-centered-cubic (BCC) In the body centered cubic the length of the cube diagonal = 2 D , as shown in figure 10, and by Pythagoras : (2D)2 = a2 + 2a2 ? ? r ? D= 3 a 4 3 a 2 & r= D 2
The volume of the atom can be calculated as follows : 4 4 3 V ? ? r 3 ? ? ( a )3 3 3 4 The volume of the basic atoms in the unit cell can be calculated as follows : V b ? 2[ 4 ? ( 3 3 4 a ) 3 ] The volume of the unit cell is A . P . F . ? Vb ? Vu 2[ V u = a3 4 3 ? ( a )3 ] 3 4 = 0. 68 a3 where D : is the atomic diameter a : is the lattice constant r : is the atomic radius Figure 10. Body centered cubic unit cell. Relation between a and D. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood 2. Face-centered-cubic (FCC) Similarly, for face centered cubic as shown in figure 11, the length of a face diagonal = 2D and by Pythagoras: (2D)2 = a2 + a2 ? D= r ? 1 2 1 2 a a & 2 r= D 2 The volume of the basic atoms in the unit cell can be calculated as follows : V b ? 4[ 4 1 ? ( a ) 3 2 2 3 ] The volume of the unit cell is : 4[ A . P . F . ? 4 1 ? ( a)3 ] 3 2 2 a3 V u = a3 = 0. 74 Figure 11. Face centered cubic unit cell. Relation between a and D. 3. Hexagonal-closed-packed (HCP) There are two lattice constant, a and c as shown in figure 12, that parameter a is equal to one atomic diameter [a = D] , the parameter c is the high of the hexagonal structure. From the hexagonal structure basics : c a V = 1.
633 , r = a 2 3 so the volume of the basic atoms is : ? 6[ 4 a ? ( )3] ? ? a 3 2 and the volume of the unit cell is : V u ? 3 2 3 a 2 .c ? 3 2 3 ? 1 . 633 a 3 ?? Engineering Materials A . P . F . ? ? a3 3 2 3 ? 1 . 633 a 3 Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood ? 0 . 74 Figure 12. Hexagonal structure with unit cell outlined, and showing relationship between a and c. Example : The atomic radius of an iron atom is 1. 238 * 10-10 m. Iron crystallizes as BCC. Calculate the lattice parameter of the unit cell, a. How many atoms are contained within the BCC unit cell ? Also find the atomic packing factor ? For BCC unit cell a ? 4 3 r For iron Therefore r = 1 . 238 ? 10 a ? ? 10 m 10 4 ? 1 . 238 ? 10 3 ? 2 . 861 ? 10 ? 10 m There are 9 atoms 8 in the corners and 1 in the center of the cubic. And the A . P . F . ? Vb ? Vu 2[ 4 3 ? ( a )3 ] 3 4 = 0. 68 a3 ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood General Properties of Engineering Materials The principle properties of materials which are of importance to the engineer in selecting materials. These can be broadly divided into: Physical properties of materials These properties concerned with such properties as melting, temperature, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, density, corrosion resistance, magnetic properties, etc. nd the more important of these properties will be considered as follows : 1. Density Density is defined as mass per unit volume for a material. The derived unit usually used by engineers is the kg/m3 . Relative density is the density of the material compared with the density of the water at 4? C. The formulae of density and relative density are: density ( ? ) ? mass ( m ) volume (V ) Density of the material Density of pure water at 4? C Relative density (d) = 2. Electrical conductivity Figure 1 shows a piece of electrical cable.
In this example copper wire has been chosen for the conductor or core of the cable because copper has the property of very good electrical conductivity. That is, it offers very little resistance to the flow of electrons (electric current) through the wire. A plastic materials such as polymerized has been chosen for the insulating sheathing surrounding the wire conductor. This material has been chosen because it is such a bad conductor, where very few electrons can bass through it. Because they are very bad conductors they are called as insulators. There is no such thing as a perfect insulator, only very bad conductors.
Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 1. Electrical conductivity. For example, metallic conductors of electricity all increase in resistance as their temperatures rise. Pure metal shows this effect more strongly than alloys. However, pure metals generally have a better conductivity than alloys at room temperature. The conductivity of metals and metal alloys improves as the temperature falls. Conversely, non-metallic materials used for insulators tend to offer a lower resistance to the passage of electrons, and so become poorer insulators, as their temperatures rise.
Glass, for example, is an excellent insulator at room temperature, but becomes a conductor if raised to red heat. 3. Melting temperature of material The melting temperatures and the recrystallisation temperatures have a grate effect on the materials and the alloys of the materials properties and as a result on its applications. 4. Semiconductors So far we have examined the conductivity of the metals and the insulating properties of the non-metals (exception : carbon).
In between conductors and isolators lies a range of materials known as semiconductors.
These can be good or bad conductors depending upon their temperatures. The conductivity of semiconductor materials increases rapidly for relatively small temperature increases. This enable them to be used as temperature sensors in electronic thermometers. Semiconductor materials are capable of having their conductors properties changed during manufacture. Examples of semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium. They are used extensively in the electronics industry in the manufacture of solid-state devices such as diodes, thermistors, transistors and integrated circuits. Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood 5. Thermal conductivity This is the ability of the material to transmit heat energy by conduction. Figure 2 shows a soldering iron. The bit is made from copper which is a good conductor of heat and so will allow the heat energy stored in it to travel easily down to the tip and into the work being soldered. The wooden handle remains cool as it has a low thermal conductivity and resists the flow of heat energy. Figure 2. Thermal conductivity. 6. Fusibility This is the ease with which materials will melt.
It can be seen from figure 3 that solder melts easily and so has the property of high fusibility. On the other hand, fire bricks used for furnace linings only melt at very high temperatures and so have the properties of low fusibility. Such materials which only melt a very high temperatures are called refractory materials. These must not be confused with materials which have a low thermal conductivity and used as thermal insulators. Although expanded polystyrene is an excellent thermal insulator, it has a very low melting point ( high fusibility ) and in no way can it be considered a refractory material.
Figure 3. Fusibility. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood 7. Reluctance (as magnetic properties) Just as some materials are good or bad conductors of electricity, some materials can be good or bad conductors of magnetism. The resistance of magnetic circuit is referred to as reluctance. The good magnetic conductors have low reluctance and examples are the ferromagnetic materials which get their name from the fact that they are made from iron, steel and associated alloying elements such as cobalt and nickel. All other materials are non-magnetic and offer a high reluctance to the magnetic flux felid. 8.
Temperature stability Any changes in temperature can have very significant effects on the structure and properties of materials. However, there are several effects can appear with changes in temperature such as creep. Creep is defined as the gradual extension of a material over a long period of time whilst the applied load is kept constant. It is also an important factor when considering plastic materials, and it must be considered when metals work continuously at high temperatures. For example gas-turbine blades. The creep rate increases if the temperature is raised, but becomes less if the temperature is lowered.
Mechanical properties of materials These properties are concerned with the following properties : 1. Tensile strength TS It is the ability of a material to withstand tensile ( stretching ) loads without breaking. For example, figure 4 shows a heavy load being held up by a rod fastened to beam. As the force of gravity acting on the load is trying to stretch the rod, the rod is said to be in tension. Therefore, the material from which the rod is made needs to have sufficient tensile strength to resist the pull of the load. Strength: is the ability of a material to resist applied forces without fracturing.
Figure 4. Tensile Strength ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood 2. Toughness It is the ability of the materials to withstand bending or it is the application of shear stresses without fracture, so the rubbers and most plastic materials do not shatter, therefore they are tough. For example, if a rod is made of high-carbon steel then it will be bend without breaking under the impact of the hammer, while if a rod is made of glass then it will broken by impact loading as shown in figure 5. Figure 5. Toughness (Impact Resistance).
. 3.
Malleability It is the capacity of substance to withstand deformation under compression without rupture or the malleable material allows a useful amount of plastic deformation to occur under compressive loading before fracture occurs. Such a material is required for manipulation by such processes as forging, rolling and rivet heading as shown in figure 6. Figure 6. Malleability 4. Hardness It is the ability of a material to withstand scratching (abrasion) or indentation by another hard body , it is an indication of the wear resistance of the material.
For example, figure 7 shows a hardened steel ball being pressed first into a hard material and then into a soft material by the same load. As seen that the ball only makes a small indentation in the hard material but it makes a very much deeper impression in the softer material. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 7. Hardness. 5. Ductility It refer to the capacity of substance to undergo deformation under tension without rupture as in wire drawing (as shown in figure 8 ), tube drawing operation. Figure 8. Ductility 6.
Stiffness It is the measure of a material’s ability not to deflect under an applied load. For example, although steel is very much stronger than cast iron, then the cast iron is preferred for machine beds and frames because it is more rigid and less likely to deflect with consequent loss of alignment and accuracy. Consider figure 9 (a): for a given load the cast iron beam deflect less than the steel beam because cast iron is more rigid material. However, when the load increased as shown in figure 9 (b), the cast iron beam will break, whilst the steel beam deflects little further but not break.
Thus a material which is rigid is not necessarily strong. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 9. Stiffness (rigidity): (a) The tested materials deflect under a light load (b) The tested materials deflect under a heavy load. 7. Brittleness It is the property of a material that shows little or no plastic deformation before fracture when a force is applied. Also it is usually said as the opposite of ductility and malleability. 8. Elasticity It is the ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original size and shape when the load is removed.
If it is made from an elastic material it will be the same length before and after the load is applied, despite the fact that it will be longer whilst the load is being applied. All materials posses elasticity to some degree and each has its own elastic limits. As in figure 10. Figure 10. Elasticity. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood 9. Plasticity This property is the exact opposite to elasticity, while the ductility and malleability are particular cases of the property of the plasticity . It is the state of a material which has been loaded beyond its elastic limit so as to cause the material to deform permanently.
Under such conditions the material takes a permanent set and will not return to its original size and shape when the load is removed. When a piece of mild steel is bent at right angles into the shape of a bracket, it shows the property of plasticity since it dose not spring back strength again, this is shown in figure 11. Figure 11. Plasticity. Some metals such as lead have a good plastic range at room temperature and can be extensively worked (where working of metal means squeezing, stretching or beating it to shape).
This is advantage for plumber when beating lead flashings to shape on building sites. Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Materials Testing Introduction: Testing of materials are necessary for many reasons, and the subject of materials testing is very broad one. Some of the purpose for the testing of materials are: 1. To determine the quality of a material. This may be one aspect of process control in production plant. 2. To determine such properties as strength, hardness, and ductility. 3. To check for flaws within a material or in a finished component. 4. To assess the likely performance of the material in a particular service condition.
It is obvious that there is not one type of test that will provide all the necessary information about a material and its performance capabilities, and there are very many different types of test that have been devices for use in the assessment of materials. One of the most widely tests is the tensile test to destruction. In this type of test a test-piece of standard dimensions is prepared, and this is then stressed in un axial tension. Other tests that are often used for the determination of strength data are compression, torsion, hardness, creep and fatigue tests.
With the exception of harness tests, these are all test of a destructive nature and they normally require the preparation of test-pieces to certain standard dimensions. For the detection of flaws or defects within part-processed stock material, or within finished components, there are several non-destructive test techniques available. In addition, there are many special tests that have been devised for the purpose of assessing some particular quality of material, or for obtaining information on the possible behavior of component or assembly in service.
In spite of the properties of materials where introduced, then the composition, processing and heat treatment of a range of metallic and non-metallic materials widely used by the engineer have been described, we should more be able to understand the problems and techniques associated with the testing of materials properties because they can be, nonetheless, useful to the designer, fabricator, and research worker, as follow: Engineering Materials 1. Tensile test Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood
The main principle of the tensile test is denotes the resistance of a material to a tensile load applied axially to a specimen. There are a several tensile testing machine, as in figure 1 (a) shows a popular bench-mounted tensile testing machine, whilst figure 1(b) shows a more sophisticated machine suitable for industrial and research laboratories, while in figure 1(c) shows the schematic drawing of a tensile – testing apparatus. These machines are capable of performing compression, shear and bending tests as well as tensile tests. (a) (b) Figure 1. Tensile testing machines. c) It is very important to the tensile test to be considered is the standard dimensions and profiles are adhered to. The typical progress of tensile test can be seen in figure 2 . Figure 2. Typical progress of a tensile test: (1) beginning of test, no load; (2) uniform elongation and reduction of cross-sectional area; (3) continued elongation, maximum load reached; (4) necking begins, load begins to decrease; and (5) fracture. If pieces are put back together as in (6), final length can be measured. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Let’s now look at Figure 3.
In this figure, the gauge length (L0) is the length over which the elongation of the specimen is measured. The minimum parallel length (Lc) is the minimum length over which the specimen must maintain a constant cross-sectional area before the test load is applied. The lengths L0. Lc, Li. and the cross-sectional area (A) are all specified in BS 18. Figure 3. Properties of tensile test specimens: (a) cylindrical; (b) flat. The elongation obtained for a given force depends upon the length and area of the cross-section of the specimen or component, since: e lo nga t io n = appliedfor ce ? L E? A here L = length A = cross-sectional area E = elastic modulus Therefore if the ratio [ L/A ] is kept constant (as it is in a proportional test piece), and E remains constant for a given material, then comparisons can be made between elongation and applied force for specimens of different sizes. ? Engineering Materials Tensile test results: Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Let’s now look at the sort of results we would get from a typical tensile test on a piece of annealed low-carbon steel. The load applied to the specimen and the corresponding extension can be plotted in the form of a graph, as shown in Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Load-extension curve for a low-carbon steel. ? From A to B the extension is proportional to the applied load. Also, if the load is removed the specimen returns to its original length. Under these relatively lightly loaded conditions the material is showing elastic properties. ? From B to C it can be seen from the graph that the metal suddenly extends with no increase in load. If the load is removed at this point the metal will not spring back to its original length and it is said to have taken a permanent set.
Therefore, B is called “limit of proportionality “, and if the force is increased beyond this point a stage is reached where a sudden extension takes place with no increase in force. This is known as the ” yield point” C. ? The yield stress is the stress at the yield point; that is, the load at B divided by the original cross-section area of the specimen. Usually, a designer works at 50 per cent of this figure to allow for a ‘factor of safety’. ? From C to D extension is no longer proportional to the load, and if the load is removed little or no spring back will occur.
Under these relatively greater loads the material is showing plastic properties. ? The point D is referred to as the ‘ultimate tensile strength’ when referred extension graphs or the ‘ultimate tensile stress’ (UTS) when ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood referred to stress-strain graphs. The ultimate tensile stress is calculated by dividing the load at D by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. Although a useful figure for comparing the relative strengths of materials, it has little practical value since engineering equipment is not usually operated so near to the breaking point. From D to E the specimen appears to be stretching under reduced load conditions. In fact the specimen is thinning out (necking) so that the ‘load per unit area’ or stress is actually increasing. The specimen finally work hardens to such an extent that it breaks at E. ? In practice, values of load and extension are of limited use since they apply to one particular size of specimen and it is more usual to plot the stressstrain curve. ? Stress and strain are calculated as follows: load stress(? ) ? areaofcros ? section s steain(? ) ? extension originallength The tensile test experimental results on some materials:
The interpretation of tensile test data requires skill borne out of experience, since many factors can affect the test results – for instance, the temperature at which the test is carried out, since the tensile modulus and tensile strength decrease as the temperature rises for most metals and plastics, whereas the ductility increases as the temperature rises. The test results are also influenced by the rate at which the specimen is strained. Figure 5 shows a typical stress-strain curve for an annealed mild steel. From such a curve we can deduce the following information. The material is ductile since there is a long elastic range. ? The material is fairly rigid since the slope of the initial elastic range is steep. ? The limit of proportionality (elastic limit) occurs at about 230 MPa. ? The upper yield point occurs at about 260 MPa. ? The lower yield point occurs at about 230 MPa. ? The ultimate tensile stress (UTS) occurs at about 400MPa. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 5. Typical stress-strain curve for annealed mild steel. Figure 6 shows a typical stress-strain curve for a grey cast iron. From such a curve we can deduce the following information. The material is brittle since there is little plastic deformation before it fractures. ? A gain the material is fairly rigid since the slope of the initial elastic range is steep. ? It is difficult to determine the point at which the limit of proportionality occurs, but it is approximately 200 MPa. ? The ultimate tensile stress (UTS) is the same as the breaking stress for this sample. This indicates negligible reduction in cross-section (necking) and minimal ductility and malleability. It occurs at approximately 250 MPa. Figure 6. Typical stress-strain curve of grey cast iron.
The yield point, however, is possibly of greater importance to the engineer than the tensile strength itself, so it becomes necessary to specify a stress which corresponds to a definite amount of permanent extension as a substitute for the yield point. This is commonly called the “Proof Stress”, and is derived as shown in figure 7. A line BC is drawn parallel to the line of proportionality, from a predetermined point B. the stress corresponding to C ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood will be the proof stress in the case illustrated it will be known as the “0. % Proof stress”, since AB has been made equal to 0. 1 % of the gauge length. The material will fulfil the specification therefore if, after the proof force is applied for fifteen seconds and removed, a permanent set of not more than 0. 1 % of the gauge length has been produced. Proof lengths are commonly 0. 1 %and 0. 2 % of the gauge length, depending upon the type of alloy. The time limit of 15 seconds is specified in order to allow sufficient time for extension to be complete under the proffer force. Figure 7. Method used to obtain the 0. 1 % proof stress.
Figure 8 shows a typical stress-strain curve for a wrought light alloy. From this curve we can deduce the following information: ? The material has a high level of ductility since it shows a long plastic range. ? The material is much less rigid than either low-carbon steel or cast iron since the slope of the initial plastic range is much less steep when plotted to the same scale. ? The limit of proportionality is almost impossible to determine, so the proof stress will be specified instead. For this sample a 0. 2 per cent proof stress is approximately 500 MPa (the line AB).
?
Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 8. Typical stress-strain curve of a light alloy. It is important to determine the properties of polymeric materials which are may ranged from highly plastic to the highly elastic. As in figure 9 the stress-strain curves for polymeric materials have been classified in to five main groups by Carswell and Nason. Figure 9. Typical stress-strain curves for polymers. A tensile test can also yield other important facts about a material under test. For example, it can enable the elastic modulus (E) for the material to be calculated.
The physicist Robert Hooke found that within its elastic range the strain produced in a material is proportional to the stress applied. It was left to Thomas Young to quantify this law in terms of a mathematical constant for any given material. strain ? stress ? Engineering Materials therefore stress = constant (E) strain Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood This constant term (E) is variously known as ‘Young’s modulus’, the ‘modulus of elasticity’ or the ‘tensile modulus’. Thus: tensile or compressive stress E = ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? train (force)/(original cross-sectional area) = ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (change in length)/(original length) Example 1 : Calculate the modulus of elasticity for a material which produces the following data when undergoing test: Applied load = 35. 7 kN, Cross-sectional Gauge length = 28 mm, Extension = 0. 2 mm. E= stress strain area = 25mm2, Where stress (? ) = and strain (? ) = 0. 2mm = 0. 007 28mm 35. 7 ? 28 = 199. 92 kN / mm2 25 ? 0. 2 35. 7kN = 1. 428 MPa 25mm therefore E= = 200 GPa (approx. This would be a typical value for a low-carbon steel. It was stated earlier that malleability and ductility are special cases of the types of plasticity. ? Malleability This refers to the extent to which a material can undergo deformation in compression before failure occurs. ? Ductility This refers to the extent to which a material can undergo ? Engineering Materials deformation in tension before failure occurs. Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood All ductile materials are malleable, but not all malleable materials are ductile since they may lack the strength to withstand tensile loading.
Therefore ductility is usually expressed, for practical purposes, as the percentage; Elongation in gauge length of a standard test piece at the point of fracture when subjected to a tensile test to destruction. increase in length Elongation % = —————————— x 100 original length The increase in length is determined by fitting the pieces of the fractured specimen together carefully and measuring the length at failure. increase in length (elongation) = length at failure — original length Figure 10 shows a specimen for a soft, ductile material before and after testing.
It can be seen that the specimen does not reduce in cross-sectional area uniformly, but that server local necking occurs prior to fracture. Since most of the plastic deformation and, therefore, most of the elongation occurs in the necked region, doubling the gauge length dose not double the elongation when calculated as a percentage of gauge length. Therefore it is important to use a standard gauge length if comparability between results is to be achieved. Elongation is calculated as follows : Figure 10. Elongation. Elongation % = Lu ? Lo ? 100 Lo ??
Engineering Materials Example 2: Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Calculate the percentage elongation of a 70/30 brass alloy, if the original gauge length (L0) is 56 mm and the length at fracture ( Lu) is 95. 2 mm. Elongation % = = Lu ? Lo ? 100 Lo 95. 2 ? 56 ? 100 = 70 % 56 2. The compression test Because of the presence of submicroscopic cracks, brittle materials are often weak in tension, as tensile stress tends to propagate those cracks which are oriented perpendicular to the axis of tension. The tensile strengths they exhibit are low and usually vary from sample to sample.
These same materials can nevertheless be quite strong in compression. Brittle materials are chiefly used in compression, where their strengths are much higher. A schematic diagram of a typical compression test is shown in figure 11. Figure 11. Compression test of ductile material. Figure 12. shows a comparison of the compressive and tensile strengths of gray cast iron and concrete, both of which are brittle materials. Figure 12. Tensile and compressive engineering stress-strain curves for gray cast iron and concrete. ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood
Because the compression test increase the cross-sectional area of the sample, necking never occurs. Extremely ductile materials are seldom tested in compression because the sample is constrained by friction at the points of contact with the plants of the apparatus. This constraint gives rise to a complicated stress distribution which can only be analyzed in an approximate fashion. 3. Ductility testing The percentage elongation, as determined by the tensile test, has already been discussed as a measure of ductility. Another way of assessing ductility is a simple bend test.
There are several ways in which this test can be applied, as shown in figure 13. The test chosen will depend upon the ductility of the material and the severity of the test required. ? Close bend test The specimen is bent over on itself and flattened. No allowance is made for spring back, and the material is satisfactory if the test can be completed without the metal tearing or fracturing. This also applies to the following tests. ? Angle bend test The material is bent over a former and the nose radius of the former and the angle of bend (?? ) are fixed by specification.
Again no allowance is made for spring back. ? 180 ? bend test This is a development of the angle bend test using a flat former as shown. Only the nose radius of the former is specified. Figure 13. Bend tests: (a) close bend; (b) angle bend; (c) 180 :C bend. ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood 4. Impact testing (toughness testing) Impact tests consist of striking a suitable specimen with a controlled blow and measuring the energy absorbed in bending or breaking the specimen. The energy value indicates the toughness of the material under test.
Figure 14 shows a typical impact testing machine which has a hammer that is suspended like a pendulum, a vice for holding the specimen in the correct position relative to the hammer and a dial for indicating the energy absorbed in carrying out the test in joules (J).
When the heavy pendulum, released from a known height, strikes and breaks the sample before it continues its upward swing. From knowledge of the mass of the pendulum and the difference between the initial and final heights, the energy absorbed in fracture can be calculated, as shown in figure 15 the schematic drawing of the impact test machine. Figure 14.
Typical impact testing machine. Figure 15. Schematic drawing of standard impact-testing apparatus. ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 16 shows how a piece of high carbon steel rod will bend when in the annealed condition, after hardening and lightly tempering, the same piece of steel will fracture when hit with a different hammer. Figure 16. Impact loading: (a) a rod of high-carbon (1. 0%) steel in the annealed (soft) condition will bend struck with a hammer (UTS 925 MPa); (b) after hardening and lightly tempering, the same piece steel will fracture when hit with a hammer despite its UTS having increased to 1285 MPa.
There are several types of the impact tests and the most famous type is the Izod test. In the Izod test, a 10mm square, notched specimen is used, it is preferred to use a specimen that have a more than one or two and even three notched in the same specimen. The striker of the pendulum hits the specimen with a kinetic energy of 162. 72 J at a velocity of 3. 8m/s. Figure 17 shows details of the specimen and the manner in which it is supported. Figure 17. Izod test (a/I dimensions in millimeters); (a) detail of notch; (b) section of test piece (at notch); (c) position of strike.
Since test use a notched specimen, useful information can be obtained regarding the resistance of the material to the spread of a crack which may originate from a point of stress concentration such as sharp comers, undercuts, sudden changes in section, and machining ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood marks in stressed components. Such points of stress concentration should be eliminated during design and manufacture. A second type of impact test is the Charpy test. While in the Izod test the specimen is supported as a cantilever, but in the Charpy test it is supported as a beam.
It is struck with a kinetic energy of 298. 3 J at a velocity of 5m/s. The Charpy impact test is usually use for testing the toughness of polymers. Figure 18 shows details of the Charpy tes: manner in which it is supported. Figure 18. Charpy test (all dimensions in millimeters).
The effects of temperature on the materials mechanical properties: The temperature of the specimen at the time of making the test also has an important influence on the test results. Figure 19 hows the embrittlement of low-carbon steels at refrigerated temperatures, and hence their unsuitability for use in refrigeration plant and space vehicles. Figure 19.
Effect of test temperatures on toughness. ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood The impact test is also useful as a production tool in comparing manufactured materials with others which have proved satisfactory in service. Steels, like most other BCC metals and alloys, absorb more energy when they fracture in a ductile fashion rather than in a brittle fashion. On this account the impact test is often used to assess the temperature of the transition from the ductile to brittle state which occurs as the temperature is lowered. The transition temperature is also dependent on the shape of the notch in the specimen.
For identical materials, the sharper the notch, the higher the apparent transition temperature. The results of impact tests for several materials are shown in figure 20. Figure 20. Impact test results for several alloys over a range of testing temperatures. 5. Creep test Even at constant stress, materials continue to deform for an indefinite period of time. This time – dependent deformation is called creep. At temperatures less than 40 percent of the absolute melting point, the extent of creep is negligible, but at temperatures higher than this it becomes increasingly important.
It is for this reason that the creep test is commonly thought of as a high-temperature test. The majority of creep testing is conducted in the tensile mode, and the type of test-piece used is similar to the normal tensile test-piece. Most creep testing is carried out under constant-load conditions and utilizes dead weights acting through a simple lever system. In the creep testing an extensometer readings are noted at regular time interval s until the required a mount of data has been obtained, or until the test-piece fractures, depending on whether the object of the test is to determine the creep rate or to determine the total creep strain.
One of the difficulties in creep testing is that a single test may take a very long time to complete (10000 hours is 417 days), and there are ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood serious difficulties in attempting to extrapolate from the results of comparatively short-term tests to assess the probable behavior of a material over a 10 or 20 year period of service. Modern creep-testing laboratories may contain several hundred creep-testing machines in continuous use.
Also creep is sensitive to both the applied load and the testing temperature, as shown in figure 21: increasing stress raises the level of the creep curve, and increasing temperature, which accelerates recovery processes, increase the creep rate. Figure 21. The effects of stress and temperature on creep behavior. 6. Hardness testing Hardness has already been defined as the resistance of a material to indentation or abrasion by another hard body ( good hardness generally means that the material is resistant to scratching and wear) . It is by indentation that most hardness tests are performed.
A hard indenter is pressed into the specimen by a standard load, and the magnitude of the indentation (either area or depth) is taken as a measure of hardness. Hardness tests are commonly used for assessing material properties because they are quick and convenient. However, a variety of testing methods is appropriate due to differences in hardness among different materials. The most well known hardness tests are Brinell and Rockwell. ?? Engineering Materials 1. The Brinell hardness test Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood In this test, hardness is measured by pressing a hard steel ball into the surface of the test piece, using a known load.
It is important to choose the combination of load and ball size carefully so that the indentation is free from distortion and suitable for measurement. The relationship of the Brinell hardness [HB] which is between load P (kg), the diameter D (mm) of the hardened ball indenter and the diameter d (mm) of the indentation on the surface is given by the expression: Load (Kg) HB = ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Area of curved surface of indentation HB = P(Kg) 1 ? ? D[D ? D 2 ? d 2 ](mm 2 ) 2 D2 For different materials, the ratio P P D2 has been standardized in order to obtain ccurate and comparative results such as : K= Where K is. a constant; typical values of K are: Ferrous metals Copper and copper alloys Aluminum and aluminum alloys Lead, tin and white-bearing metals K = 30 K = 10 K=5 K=1 Figure 22 shows how the Brinell hardness value is determined. The diameter of the indentation is measured in two directions at right angles and the average taken. The diameter is measured either by using a microscope scale, or by a projection screen with micrometer adjustment. Figure 22. Principle of the Brinell hardness test. ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood
To ensure consistent results, the following precautions should be observed. ? The thickness of the specimen should be at least seven times the depth of the indentation to allow unrestricted plastic flow below the indenter. ? The edge of the indentation should be at least three times the diameter of the indentation from the edge of the test piece. ? The test is unsuitable for materials whose hardness exceeds 500 HB, as the ball indenter tends to flatten. There are a definite relationship between strength and hardness so it is possible to measure the tensile strength from the hardness test. . The Vickers hardness test This test is preferable to the Brinell test where hard materials are concerned, as it uses a diamond indenter. (Diamond is the hardest material known – approximately 6000 HB. ) The diamond indenter is in the form of a square-based pyramid with an angle of 1 36? between opposite faces. Since only one type of indenter is used the load has to be varied for different hardness ranges. Standard loads are 5, 10, 20. 30, 50 and 1 00 kg. It is necessary to state the load when specifying a Vickers hardness number.
For example, if the hardness number is found to be 200 when using a 50 kg load, then the hardness number is written as HV (50) = 200. Figure 23 shows the measuring screen for determining the distance across the corners of the indentation. The screen can be rotated so that two readings at right angles can be taken and the average is used to determine the hardness number (HD).
This is calculated by dividing the load by the projected area of the indentation: Load (Kg) Hv = ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Surface area of indentation (mm2) Hv = P(Kg) 1 [d 2 2 sin (136? ](mm 2 ) 2 2P sin 68? P = 1. 854 2 2 d d = where P is the load in Kg and d (mm) is the diagonal of the impression made by the indenter made by the diamond. ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 23. The Vickers hardness test method: (a) universal hardness-testing machine; (b) measuring screen showing magnified of Vickers impression. 3. The Rockwell hardness test Although not as reliable as the Brinell and Vickers hardness tests for laboratory purposes, the Rockwell test is widely used in industry as it is quick, simple and direct reading.
Universal electronic hardness testing machines are now widely used which, at the turn of a switch, can provide either Brinell, Vickers or Rockwell tests and show the hardness number as a digital readout automatically. They also give a “hard copy’ printout of the test result together together with the test conditions and date. In principle the Rockwell hardness test compares the difference in depth of penetration of the indenter when using forces of two different values. That is, a minor force is first applied (to take up the backlash and pierce the skin of the component) and the scale are set to read zero.
Then a major force is applied over and above the minor force and the increased depth of penetration is shown on the scales of the machine as a direct reading of hardness without the need for calculation or conversion tables. Figure 24 shows a typical Rockwell hardness testing machine. The standard Rockwell test can not be used for very thin sheet and foils and for these the Rockwell superficial hardness test is used. ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Figure 24. The Rockwell hardness test. 4. Shoe Scleroscope
The test piece must be small enough to mount in the testing machine, and hardness is measured as a function of indentation. However, the scleroscope is not like other types of hardness tests based their measure on the ratio of applied load divided by the resulting impression are [ like Brinell and Vicker well] or by the depth of impression [ like Rock well]. The scleroscope is an instrument that measures the rebound height of a hammer droped from a certain distance above the surface of the material to be tested. The hammer consist of a weight with diamond indenter attached to it.
The scleroscope therefore measures the mechanical energy absorbed by the material when the indenters strikes the surface. The energy absorbed gives an indication of resistance to penetration, which matches our definition of hardness. As shown in figure 25. The primary use of the sclerscope seems to be in measuring the hardness of large parts of steel, large rolls, casting and gears. And since the seclroscope can be carried to the work piece, it is useful for testing large surfaces and other components which could not easily be placed on the testing tables of any other testing machines. Figure 25.
Shore scleroscope. ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood The table below shows the different in the ways of measuring the hardness numbers for methods we mentioned above. Table 1. Hardness tests. ?? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Surface Hardening of Steel Introduction: The service conditions of many steel components such as cams and gears, make it necessary for them to possess both hard, wear-resistant surfaces and, at the same time, tough, shock-resistant cores. In plain carbon steels these two different sets of properties exist only in alloys of different carbon content.
A low-carbon steel, containing approximately 0-1% carbon, will be tough, whilst a highcarbon steel of 0-9% or more carbon will possess adequate hardness when suitably heat-treated. The situation can best be met by employing a low-carbon steel with suitable core properties and then causing either carbon or nitrogen to penetrate to a regulated depth into the surface skin; as in the principal surface-hardening processes of carburising and nitriding. Alternatively, a steel of medium carbon content and in the normalised condition can be used, local hardness at the surface then being introduced by one or other of the name-hardening processes.
In the first case the hardenable material is localised, whilst in the second case it is the heat-treatment itself which is localised. There are four main types of the surface hardening which are :1. Case hardening 2. Nitriding 3. Flam hardening 4. Induction hardening The first two types include a change in the chemical structure of the surface while the other types include a change in the micro constituents as a result for the positional heat treatment. Engineering Materials 1. Case hardening Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood Is one of the most used for producing a hard surface on a ductile steel.
It involves the introduction of additional carbon into the surface of mild steel, effectively producing a composite material consisting of low carbon steel with a thin case, about 0. 5 – 0. 7 mm in thickness, of high carbon steel, this was the principle of case-hardening that have been used for centuries in the conversion of mild or wrought iron to steel by the cementation process. The case-hardening consists in surrounding the component with suitable carbon material and heating it to above its upper critical temperature for long enough to produce a carbon enriched layer of sufficient depth.
Solid, liquid and gaseous carburizing media are used. The nature and scope of the work involved will govern which media is best to employ. The case-hardening process has two distinct steps, as shown in figure 1: ? Carburising ( the additional of carbon) ? Heat treatment ( hardening and core refinement) Figure 1. Case hardening : (a) carburising, (b) after carburising, (c) after quenching component. 1. Carburising Carburizing makes use of the fact that low carbon steel absorb carbon when heated to the austenitic condition various carbonaceous materials are used in the carburizing process as follows:1. Carburising in solid media “Pack-carburising”, as it is usually called, involves packing the components into cast-iron or steel boxes along with the carburizing material so that a space of approximately 50 mm exists between the components. The lids are then luted on to the boxes, which are slowly ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood heated to the carburizing temperature for between 900 and 950? C. they are maintained at this temperature for up to five hours, according to depth of case required.
Carburising media vary in composition, but consist essentially of some carbonaceous material, such as wood or bone charcoal or charred leathers together with an energiser which may account for up to 40% of the total composition. This energiser is usually a mixture of sodium carbonate (“soda ash”) and barium carbonate, and its purpose is to accelerate the solution of carbon by the surface layer of the steel. It is thought that carburisation proceeds by dissociation of carbon monoxide which will be present in the hot box. When the gas comes into contact with the hot steel it dissociates thus: CO CO2 + C The atomic carbon deposited at the surface of the steel dissolves easily in the metal. In this method of carburizing the thickness of the surface is between 0. 05 – 1. 55 mm. If it is necessary to prevent any areas of the component from being carburised, this can be achieved by electro-plating these areas with copper to a thickness of 0-075-0-10 mm; carbon being insoluble in solid copper at the carburising temperature. When carburising is complete the components are quenched or cooled slowly in the box, according to the nature of the subsequent heat-treatment to be applied. . 2 Carburising in a liquid bath ( Cyaniding) Liquid-carburising is carried out in baths containing from 20 to 50% sodium cyanide, together with up to 40% sodium carbonate and varying amounts of sodium chloride. This cyanide-rich mixture is heated in pots to a temperature of 870-950° C, and the work, which is contained in wire baskets, is immersed for periods varying from about five minutes up to one hour, depending upon the depth of case required. One of the main advantages of cyanide-hardening is that pyrometric control is so much more satisfactory with a liquid bath.
Moreover, aft e r treatment the basket of work can be quenched. This not only produces the necessary hardness but also gives a clean surface to the components. ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood The process is particularly useful in obtaining shallow cases of 0. 1 – 0. 25 mm. Dissociation of the carbon monoxide at the steel surface then takes place with the same result as in pack-carburising. The nitrogen, in atomic form, also dissolves in the surface and produces an increase in hardness by the formation of nitrides as it does in the nitriding process.
Cyanides are, of course, extremely poisonous, and every precaution should be taken to avoid inhaling the fumes from a pot. Every pot should be fitted with an efficient fume-extracting hood. Likewise the salts s h o u l d in no circumstances be allowed to come into contact with an open wound. Needless to say, the consumption of food by operators whilst working in the shop containing the cyanide pots should be Absolutely forbidden. 1. 3 Carburising by gaseous media Gas-carburising is carried out in both batch-type and continuous furnaces.
The components are heated at about 900° C for three or four hours in an atmosphere containing gases which will deposit carbon atoms at the surface of the components. The most important of these gases are the hydrocarbons methane CH4 , and propane, C3H8. They should be of high purity in order to avoid the deposit of oily soot which impedes carburising. To facilitate better gas circulation and hence, greater uniformity of treatment the hydrocarbon is mixed with a “carrier” gas. This is generally an “endothermic” type of atmosphere made in a generator and consisting of a mixture containing mainly nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
The relative proportions of hydrocarbon and carrier are adjusted to give the desired carburizing rate. Thus, the concentration gradient of carbon in the surface can be “flattened” by prolonged treatment in a less rich carburising atmosphere. Control of this type is possible only with gaseous media. Gas-carburising is becoming increasingly popular, particularly for the mass production of thin cases. Not only is it a neater and cleaner process but the necessary plant is more compact for a given output.
Moreover, the carbon of the surface layers can be controlled more accurately and easily with thickness of about 0. 25 – 1. 0 mm. 2. Heat treatment after Carburising ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood If carburising has been correctly carried out, the core will still be of low carbon content (0. 1 – 0. 2% carbon), whilst the case should have a maximum carbon content of 0. 83% carbon (the eutectoid composition), as shown in figure 2. Figure 2. Heat-treatment After Carburising. A Indicates the temperature of treatment for the core, and B the temperature of treatment for the case.
Considerable gain growth occurs in the material during a carburizing treatment, therefore a three stage of heat treatment must be given to the carburized parts to produce the desired final properties. This heat treatment involves: 2. 1 Refining the core The component is first heat-treated with the object of refining the grain of the core, and consequently toughening it. This is effected by heating it to just above its upper critical temperature (about 870° C for the core) when the coarse ferrite-pearlite structure will be replaced by refined austenite crystals.
The component is then water-quenched, so that a fine ferrite-martensite structure is obtained. The core-refining temperature of 870° C is, however, still high above the upper critical temperature for the case, so that, at the quenching temperature, the case may consist of large austenite grains. On ? Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood quenching these will result in the formation of coarse brittle martensite. Further treatment of the case is therefore necessary. 2. 2 Refining the case The component is now heated to about 760° C, so that the coarse martensite of the case changes to fine-grained austenite.
Quenching then gives a fine-grained martensite in the case. At the same time the martensite produced in the core by the initial quench will be tempered somewhat, and much will be reconverted into fine-grained austenite embedded in the ferrite matrix (point C in Figure. 2).
The second quench will produce a structure in the core consisting of martensite particles embedded in a matrix of ferrite grains surrounded by bainite. The amount of martensite in the core is reduced if the component is heated quickly through the range 650-760° C and then quenched without soaking. This produces a core structure consisting