Explain why the Arab invasions of 710 and 711 were so successful. In answering this question we must first appreciate the difficulty historians face in discovering the real truth of the early Arab invasions, a fact well demonstrated in the varying estimates of Arab invasion forces (ranging from 1, 700-9000 in current publications).
Scant contemporary evidence exists beyond a short narrative present in a Spanish chronicle of 754, a vital surviving Islamic administrative document of the time, and some archaeological remains. Our knowledge of the invasions is largely founded on the works of later Islamic historians, the Ajar Mach mua text for example and the works of Ibn Id hari and al Maqqari. Unfortunately there are fewer Christian documents available. Julian’s ‘History of Wamba’ is one of few Visigothic texts to be found, further information has therefore been gained from later monastic chroniclers.
For religious Muslim contemporary’s the success of the 711 invasion was attributed to the will of Allah as part of Islam’s rapid expansion. Likewise for the Christian author of the 9 th century chronicle of Alfonso III the Visigoths’ defeat had been punishment for disobeying God’s commandments. To the majority of medieval men divine intervention was a valid explanation for occurrences, however even then secular minded writers appreciated more practical explanations; principally the unrest which existed within the Visigothic kingdom. The political and social problems which faced Iberia at the time are seen by many modern historians as vital to the conquest’s success. In 710, supposedly the year of the first major Muslim incursion into Spain under Tarif (whether Tarif’s raid even occurred is disputed by some historians) the new King Roderic succeeded the throne. He was in a vulnerable position from the outset as controversy existed over his succession.
The Term Paper on “Anti-Americanism” in the Arab World
This essay turns to history to answer the oft-asked question “Why do they (Arabs) hate us (America)?” True, you cannot generalize about 280 million Arabs each with its own tradition and history. However, there are certain historical and political contexts that can explain the rise of anti-American sentiment. The claim: Anti-Americanism is a recent phenomenon fueled by American foreign ...
It was argued that he had apparently usurped the throne from the rightful heir Akhila son of the old King Witt iza. Although Visigoth royal succession was theoretically elective it was in practice through primogenitor which naturally undermined Roderic’s position. The existence of a rival claimant caused dangerous divisions throughout the kingdom and in Akhila’s demesne land of Tarragona and Narbonne coins were minted without the king’s image, a clear measure of defiance. It is also reported in some sources that during the invasion Akhila conspired with the Arabs to depose Roderic.
Some go as far as to say that during the final battle a wing of Roderic’s army loyal to Akhila turned on him in the midst of the fighting. Whether this is true can hardly be proven but something catastrophic must have happened for the King’s army supposedly far larger than Tarik’s (Estimates 24, 000-30, 000) to suffer such a devastating defeat. Many historians support the idea that elements within the Visigothic nobility gave assistance to the invaders probably as a means of removing Roderic. It is unlikely however that they foresaw the long term implications of the invasion and the extension of Muslim presence in Iberia. It is argued that as well as the problems the succession dispute posed, the very fabric of Visigothic society itself was weak. It is suggested that the Visigothic nobility of the time, who had placed themselves above the native Hispano-Roman population in terms of rights and privileges, were suffering a backlash from the lower sections of society.
Incidents of rebellion had increased as had the number of slaves deserting their Lords. Many runaways turned to outlawry and as a consequence there was a rise in crime. It is therefore possible that the large, oppressed lower segments of society offered little resistance to the Muslim invaders. The same can be said for the considerable Jewish community in Spain who had suffered severe persecution under the Visigoth Kings. Jews were banned from many areas of trade which was the lifeblood of their community. Through their links with the Jewish settlements in North Africa they must have been aware that their brethren were afforded far better treatment under Islam.
The Essay on Conflict In King Lear Historical And Social Context
Conflict lies at the heart of tragedy. How have the various conflicts in King Lear been presented and received in different historical and social contexts? In your response refer to at least three critical interpretations (including your own) and use elements of two productions of the play you have seen to support your points. King Lear is undoubtedly Shakespeares greatest tragedy, and quite ...
This could have encouraged co-operation with the Arab invaders. The question of to what degree the Visigoth Kingdom was centralised is another important subject of debate relevant to the success of the invasions. Some historians argue that the Visigothic Kings inherited and maintained Roman order which made for a united Spanish state. Visigothic rulers followed the idea of ‘Romanitas’ trying to emulate their predecessors for example issuing codes of law in Latin modelled on Roman law, maintaining Roman practices of administration, minting coins in the style of emperors and restoring Roman architecture. It is argued that when the King at the head of this well ordered, well-governed kingdom was killed in battle it dealt a decisive blow. This theory is rationalise d with comparisons to the organised polities of Egypt and Persia which fell so quickly to Muslim invasion.
Nevertheless historians arguing that in 711 Spain was a well ordered, well governed centralised state seem to ignore evidence which suggests considerable political and social unrest. As opposed to centralised government it is far more likely that greater control lay in the localities. Local landed magnates were of greater relevance to the common people than the King in Toledo. This apparent importance of local government was very beneficial to the Muslim invaders as it enabled them to strike deals with regional Lords. A surviving Islamic administrative document of the time shows an agreement made with Lord Theodemir in the Alicante region confirming his lordship and allowing the safe worship of Christianity.
In return he was not to give aid to deserters or enemies of the conquerors and was obliged to pay an annual poll tax in money and kind. Contracts such as this demonstrated the Muslims’ diplomatic skill which was vital in the conquest’s success. Linked to the weaknesses of Visigothic government were the problems rulers faced in raising an effective army. This issue had long been a problem and despite King Wamba’s strict laws (decreeing that any man within a hundred miles of the conflict must lend assistance) there was still a widespread reluctance amongst magnates to provide troops, and amongst the population in general to assist in the defence of the kingdom. When the Muslims reached Granada it was reported that the majority of the population had fled and only the four hundred strong garrison remained to defend it. Definite divisions existed between the military and non-military classes in Visigoth society.
The Essay on Spain Three Kings
Spain is located in southwest Europe. Spain official name is Reino de Espana, which means, Kingdom of Spain. The capitol of Spain is Madrid, which is the largest populated city in the country. Barcelona is the second largest city in Spain, which also is greatly populated. Official language spoken is Castilian Spanish, others Catalan, Galician, and Basque. The majority of Spanish religion is 97% ...
With regards to the decisive battle however most accounts suggest that Roderic possessed an army far outnumbering Tarik’s. Here perhaps superior Arab military tactics came into play such as the effective use of mounted archers and cavalry charges. Maybe Roderic and his army were tired from recent campaigns against the Basques. There are obvious parallels here between Roderic and King Harold’s experience at Stamford Bridge. As we have seen there may also have been disloyal elements within his army.
Accounts of what happened at the battle are mainly unreliable, however they suggest a magnificent victory for Tarik’s forces. A further approach to the question is to examine how the numerous legends account for the success of the Arab invasions. If we choose to we can find meanings in the stories; the myth of the tower in Toledo for example on which all of Roderic’s predecessors had added locks when they ascended the throne. Roderic arrogantly refuses to add a lock and opens the tower thus sealing his fate.
This story can easily be interpreted as a critique on Roderic’s kingship. It highlights most importantly his failure to fulfil his duty as a King, in this case failing to add a protective lock to the tower can be interpreted as failing to protect his people from the Arab invasion. In a similar way the story of Julian and his daughter whether true or not highlights an opinion that Roderic was an immoral king who abused his powers and acted as a bad overlord to his vassals. The fact that these legends emerge highlights the likelihood that Roderic was an unpopular ruler whose inaptitude led to the invasion’s success and whose deposition may have been welcomed by sections of society. Despite a lack of evidence historians can establish possible reasons for the success of the Arab invasions of 710 and 711, it seems that the weaknesses of the Visigothic State at the time were a major factor. Having said that we must not ignore the achievements of the conquerors in exploiting such a situation, their drive and ambition both religiously and economically motivated led to a further expansion of the Islamic empire.
The Essay on Arabs Have Been Immigrating Into The Latin America From The
Arabs have been immigrating into the Latin America from the Middle East since the beginning of the 20th century. Some of them came following their dreams to establish a better life for themselves, while others were forced to flee the war-torn countries of the Middle East like Lebanon, Iraq, Palestine, and Yemen. Those immigrants kept their traditions alive, and, like many other immigrant ...
The important consolidation process which followed Tarik’s victory in 711 would spread Islamic influence throughout the Iberian Peninsula creating a presence which would last for nearly 800 years and a legacy still evident today in Hispanic culture. Bibliography Cheyne, Anwar G: Muslim Spain, its history and culture (Minneapolis, 1974) Collins, Rodger: Early Medieval Spain, University in Diversity, 400-1000 (Basingstoke 1995) Collins, Rodger: The Arab Conquest of Spain 710-797 (Oxford 1989) Fletcher, Richard: Moorish Spain (London, 1992) Kennedy, Hugh: Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-An dalus (London 1996) Read, Jan: The Moors in Spain and Portugal (London, 1974) Watt, W. Montgomery: A history of Islamic Spain (Edinburgh, 1996).
