Essay Question: Explain the factors that promoted unification in Germany and assess Bismarck’s role in the unification of Germany.
The process of German unification and the ultimate union of the German states had a profound influence on the history of Europe and the world during the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. There were numerous factors which promoted the unification of Germany; including emerging political ideologies, a series of strategic wars, and the establishment of the Zollverein. Otto von Bismarck, the Prime Minister of Prussia, also proved to be a pivotal factor, using his political prowess to accelerate the unification process.
One significant factor that contributed to German unification was the Zollverein, which was a customs union among the German states, whereby the tariff barriers were removed. This union was effectively an economic unification, drawing the German states together and stimulating economic growth by facilitating cheap trade between German states. Statistical evidence in the form of graphs showing iron and coal productions reflects this exponential economic growth subsequent to the Zollverein. As it was initiated by Prussia, it firmly established them as the economic leader in Germany. Whether or not the Prussians had planned the Zollverein as a precursor to political unification is unknown. According to Andrina Stiles “The argument is that those who found financial advantage in an economic union under Prussian leadership might be expected to take a favourable view of similar arrangements in a political union”.
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Another factor that promoted German unification was the potent force of nationalism that transpired during the late nineteenth century. The prevalence of nationalism is reflected through contemporary cartoons, such as the one published in ‘Punch’ in 1873. This cartoon features the national flag, symbolizing the potency of the emergent nationalistic ideology. Indeed, it was nationalism that advocated the unification process more so than any other, as without this nationalistic fervour, the people would not have been as susceptible to Bismarck’s machinations. With nationalism being a concept that was accepted by aristocrats and proletarians alike, Bismarck exploited this notion to engender a sense of unity amongst the German states, and thus promote unification. German unification had more to do with nationalism than any other single idea. Bismarck used the idea of nationalism in one war after another to bring the German states and people together.
Unlike nationalism, the incipient political ideologies of liberalism and socialism were considerably less significant elements in the German unification process. Both ideologies shared similar principles, such as democracy, limiting the power of the aristocrats and preventing exploitation of the proletariat. The socialists and the liberalists united during the 1848 revolutions, but failed to remain cohesive. Consequently, these revolutions failed, and both ideologies paled into insignificance. However, numerous historians, including Wolfgang Mommsen, opine that the reactionary aristocrats felt the need to suppress these subversive political ideologies, as they posed a threat to the existing social stratifications. Hence, Bismarck used the unification to deflect public attention from these ideologies, thus “protecting the existing order against powerful forces of social and political change” (Mommsen, The Problem of a German State).
However, while there are undoubtedly various factors which promoted German unification, the pre-eminent factor was ultimately Otto von Bismarck himself. As Prime Minister of Prussia from 1862, he used his authority and diplomacy to accelerate unification under the dominion of the Prussian states. Described as a “brilliant opportunist” by modern historian A.J.P Taylor, Bismarck used his political skill to take advantage of situations as they arose, using them to achieve his objectives. Bismarck expedited the unification through a process he described as that of “blood and iron”. Essentially, Bismarck believed that unification would be achieved through war (blood) and economic and technological modernisation (iron).
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Bismarck’s mastery of diplomacy is highlighted through his manipulation of a series of wars against Denmark, Austria and France.
Certainly, the wars acted as catalysts for German unification. Some historians suggest that Bismarck manipulated the Schleswig-Holstein war to provide him with leverage for a future conflict with Austria, while others argue it was tactical move to secure strategic territory. Irrespective of the motive, the war served to incite nationalistic sentiments, especially for Prussia who claimed the glory for the victory. The Austro-Prussian war allowed Bismarck to ensure that the unification would satisfy his pre-requisites. The pretext for precipitating this conflict was the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein. The underlying motive, however, was to facilitate the removal of Austria from the German Confederation and enable their subsequent exclusion from the unified Germany. Bismarck then deliberately provoked the Franco-Prussian war, which established a common antagonist amongst the German states, thus allowing Bismarck to further fuel nationalistic fervour. Bismarck’s manipulative proclivities are illustrated through his exploitation of the notorious Ems Telegram of 13 July 1870, as he cunningly edited King Wilhelm’s original words to create the impression that the French ambassador and King Wilhelm had traded diplomatic insults. By editing the telegram, Bismarck gave France an opportunity to declare war, as part of his plan to unify Germany. He himself remarked “The Ems Telegram should have the desired effect of waving a red cape in front of the face of the Gallic Bull”.
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When Otto von Bismarck was recalled from Paris to become Minister-President of Prussia in 1862, German nationalism was already more than 40 years old. First apparent in the opposition to Napoleons occupation of the German states, national feeling grew into a movement after 1815. This feeling was encouraged by a growth of interest in German literature and music and by increased economic cooperation ...
There are a myriad of opinions regarding Bismarck’s role in the unification process. Some claim that Bismarck was the ultimate architect of the unification. Historian Otto Pflanze asserts that “The common view of German nationalism as an irresistible current sweeping down the decades to fulfillment in 1870 is a fiction…Only under the stimulation provided by Bismarck for his own political ends did German nationalism begin to move the masses.” Similarly, renowned historian Mary Fulbrook opines Bismarck “took prime advantage of the social circumstances and used them to satisfy his own criteria”. Conversely, historian Medlicott ‘European Powers and the German question’ believes that Bismarck’s role was exaggerated and supports the view that the Zollverein was perhaps the greatest contributing factor, as it set the foundation for political unification as argued by economic historians such as Bohme. Similarly, George Mosse claims that “German unification was inevitable” regardless of Bismarck’s involvement.
Whether Bismarck was the architect of the unification “a brilliant opportunist” as noted by A.J.P Taylor will continue to be debated. While German unification was likely to have eventuated regardless, especially considering the economic unification and the swelling nationalistic sentiments, there is general consensus that Bismarck’s role was significant, if not in orchestrating the unification, certainly in expediting the process.
