classical conditioning (also Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a process of behavior modification made famous by Ivan Pavlov and his experiments conducted with dogs. In this process, a subject comes to respond in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus, by associating it with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the desired response. Classical conditioning became the basis for a theory of how organisms learn, and a philosophy of psychology developed by John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner and others. Learning theory grew into the foundation of Behaviorism, a school of psychology that had great societal influence in the mid-20th century.
Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Usually, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork), the unconditioned stimulus (US) is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food) and the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response (e.g., salivation).
After pairing is repeated (some learning may occur already after only one pairing), the organism exhibits a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. The conditioned response is usually similar to the unconditioned response (see below), but unlike the unconditioned response, it must be acquired through experience and is relatively impermanent.[1] In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is not simply connected to the unconditioned response. The conditioned response usually differs in some way from the unconditioned response, sometimes significantly. For this and other reasons, learning theorists commonly suggest that the conditioned stimulus comes to signal or predict the unconditioned stimulus, and go on to analyze the consequences of this signal.[2] Robert A. Rescorla provided a clear summary of this change in thinking, and its implications, in his 1988 article “Pavlovian conditioning: It’s not what you think it is.”[3]
The Essay on Sickness Was An Unconditioned Alex Conditioning Violence
... the conditioned stimulus, and Alex's sickness without the injection became the conditioned response. Skinner however, believes most behavior differs from the classical form of conditioning, he ... He called the food the unconditioned stimulus and the salivation the unconditioned response. This was unconditioned because salivating was a natural response to the food. Pavlov ...
Ivan Pavlov received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1904 for his research on saliva and digestion. While he was studying digestion in dogs, Pavlov (1906, 1928) discovered classical conditioning quite accidentally—a famous example of how scientists looking at one thing inadvertently discover another. As often happens, luck, keen observation, and serendipity (making important discoveries by accident) led to this important scientific discovery. In order to examine digestive enzymes in the dogs’ saliva, Pavlov and his technicians placed tubes in their mouths to collect their saliva. Then they placed meat powder in their mouths, which naturally produces salivation. After doing this for a while, Pavlov noticed that the dogs would begin to salivate even before the meat powder was presented, when the laboratory technician who fed them prepared the apparatus to collect their saliva. It was as though the sounds of the technician manipulating the apparatus signaled to the dogs that meat powder was about to come (Fancher, 1996).
Pavlov guessed that the dogs had formed an association between the sounds of the apparatus and the meat powder, just as our cats formed an association between the sounds of a drawer opening and being fed. Pavlov reasoned that the dogs had formed an association between a stimulus that had no inherent food value (the sound of the apparatus) and one that did (the meat powder).
Could he teach a dog to salivate to something else? He designed a laboratory experiment that mimicked the conditions in which the dogs salivated to sounds made by the technician. Working with different dogs, Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (a bell sound) just before showing them the meat powder. The dogs had no previous experience with the bell, but they salivated to the meat powder, because dogs always salivate to meat powder, from the first time they smell it.
The Term Paper on Classical Operant Conditioning Response Stimulus Behaviour
... rang the bell but did not give the dog meat powder it still salivated. He now saw the bell as a conditioned stimulus (CS), ... with the meat powder until it produced a CR. The dog was able to discriminate between the shapes. + Higher Order Conditioning - Pavlov ... did another experiment where he paired a metronome (CS) with the meat powder (UCS). After evoking ...
Salivation is a reflex, an automatic response to a particular stimulus (food) that requires no learning. Pavlov presented the bell along with the meat powder to the dogs over and over again. The dogs salivated. Then he tried presenting the bell alone to see if the dogs might now link the bell with the meat powder in the way the first dogs linked the noise of the apparatus with the meat powder. Bingo! The dogs salivated to the bell alone. By virtue of the association made during repeated pairings with meat powder, the nonappetizing bell had come to signal “meat powder” to the dogs. The dogs had learned that they would get meat powder after the bell sounded.
Conditioned Fear & Anxiety – many phobias that people experience are the results of conditioning. For Example – “fear of bridges” – fear of bridges can develop from many different sources. For example, while a child rides in a car over a dilapidated bridge, his father makes jokes about the bridge collapsing and all of them falling into the river below. The father finds this funny and so decides to do it whenever they cross the bridge. Years later, the child has grown up and now is afraid to drive over any bridge. In this case, the fear of one bridge generalized to all bridges which now evoke fear.
2. Advertising and Consumer Psychology- modern advertising strategies evolved from John Watson’s use of conditioning. The approach is to link an attractive US with a CS (the product being sold) so the consumer will feel positively toward the product just like they do with the US. US –> CS –> CR/UR
attractive person –> car –> pleasant emotional response
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
a) Unconditioned Stimulus (US) – a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur).
b) Unconditioned Response (UR) – an unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning. c) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. d) Conditioned Response (CR) – a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning. *These are reflexive behaviors. Not a result from engaging in goal directed behavior. e) Trial – presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli.
The Essay on Visual Field Time Stimuli Effect
VISUAL FIELD POSITION AND TYPE OF STIMULI ON THE STROOP EFFECT The Effect of Visual Field Position and Type of Stimuli on the Stroop Effect Reynold Hicks University of TampaAbstractAn experiment was conducted to test the effect of lateralization and congruency on reaction time to name colors. This was done using a computer program provided by The University of Mississippi. This effect is called ...
AIM
The aim is to study classical conditioning in athletes b observing whether reaction times change with increased exposure to stimulus. HYPOTHESIS
The athletes’ reaction time will get faster with increased exposure to the stimulus resulting in reduced times on a 25m sprint. METHODOLOGY
The Classical Conditioning Experiment was conducted on 5 participants between the ages of 12-16 years. There were 4 boys and 1 girl. All participants were swimmers. Each participant was welcomed to the swimming pool. After all subjects were warmed up, each subject was asked to swim 25m of freestyle. Subjects were given a start with a whistle after saying ‘take your marks’. The participants were familiar with this method of being given a start. Each participant’s time for the 25metres was recorded. For the following 4 sprints the sound of a doorbell was played after ‘take your marks’ was said. Participants were unfamiliar with this method of starting. The participants’ times were recorded for each on the laps. Sufficient time was given between laps. The subjects were thanked for their participation. The timings were submitted to the researcher. Differences in reaction times for each subject were calculated and results were tabulated in order to analyze and discuss by the researcher.
RSEULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The experiment conducted by the researcher is based on reaction times of the swimmers. The reaction time is the time between the start being given and the swimmer taking off the block. A slower reaction time would lead to a greater overall time taken to finish the 25 meters. The participants time for the neutral stimulus ( start given with a whistle) was recorded so as to provide a basis for comparison. The subsequent times were slower as the subject was not conditioned to to the stimulus9 (the doorbell sound).
The Term Paper on Substituents On Aromatic Aldehydes And How They Affect E/Z Selectivity In The Wittig Reaction
The Wittig Reaction is a nucleophilic addition in which an alkene is formed as a product. Both the E and Z isomers of the alkene result. Substituents on the aromatic aldehyde affect the E/Z ratio of products that form. In this experiment, a nitro group was used as the substituent in the ortho, meta and para positions, with benzaldehyde as the control. Each of the four aldehydes reacted with ( ...
However, as the subjects’ exposure to the stimulus increased, they got conditioned and timings began to reduce. The following table demonstrates the timings change in timings; The change in timings occurred because the stimulus became conditioned to the new stimulus. As a result, their reaction time was faster, giving them a quicker reaction time and a more efficient start off the blocks. As the exposure to the stimulus increased (repeated number of lengths) the subjects minds were conditioned to pay attention to the sound of a doorbell and not to that of a whistle. Hence, the timings fell.
This study is very revealing on how younger athletes can be conditioned through repeated practice, to become more efficient and mater certain techniques, not only in swimming but in all sports. Often there are technical changes in sports to improve efficiency, however, many athletes find it difficult to change their techniques as they are imbedded in their muscle memory. Classical conditioning can be used to help athletes adopt to changes in the field. There was one limitation the researchers study occurring due to the absence of a reaction time meter. Approximate reaction times had to be calculated using the differences in the overall time as the equipment required was unavailable and extremely costly.
CONCUSION
Restate Aim and Hypothesis.
The researchers hypothesis was proved and timings reduced with increased exposure to the stimulus due to the conditioning of the athletes.
