The history of Algebra began in ancient Egypt and Babylon time. Diophantus of Alexandria wrote the first treatise on Algebra in the 3 rd century A. D. The term derives from Arabic or literally “the reunion of broken parts.” As well as its mathematical meaning, the word also means the surgical treatment of fractures. Ancient civilizations wrote out algebraic expressions using only occasional abbreviations, but by medieval times Islamic mathematicians were able to talk about arbitrarily high powers of the unknown “x”, and work out the basic algebra of polynomials (with out yet using modern symbolism).
This included the ability to multiply; divide, and find square roots of polynomials as well as knowledge of the binomial theorem. The Persian Mathematicians, astronomer, and poet Omar Khayyam showed how to express roots of cubic equations by line segments obtained by interesting conic sections, but he could not find a formula for the roots. Early in the 16 th century, the Italian Mathematicians, Scipio ne del Ferro, Niccolo Tartaglia, and Girolamo Car dano solved the general cubic equation in terms of the constants appearing in the equation. In the 19 th century, however, the Norwegian Mathematician, Niels Abel and the French Mathematician, Evariste Galois proved that no such formula exists. There was an important development in algebraic powers and operations.
As a result of this development, book III of La geometric in (1637) written by French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes, looks much like modern algebra text. By the time of Gauss, algebra had entered its modern phrase. Attention shifted from solving polynomial equations to studying the structure of abstract mathematician system whose axioms were based on the behavior of mathematical objects, such as complex numbers, that mathematicians encountered when studying polynomial equations. Groups began as a system of permutations and combinations of roots of polynomials, but they became one the chief unifying concepts of 19 th century mathematics. Important contributions to their study were made by the French mathematicians Galois and Augustin Cauchy, the British mathematician Arthur Cayley. After Hamilton’s discovery the German mathematician Hermann Grass man began investigating vectors.
The Essay on The First Half Of The Seventeenth Century Witnessed The Last
The first half of the seventeenth century witnessed the last and greatest of the religious wars, a war that for thirty years (1618-48) devastated Germany and involved, before it was over, nearly every state in Europe. For more than half a century before the war began, the Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555) had served to maintain an uneasy peace between the Protestant and Catholic forces in ...
Despite its abstract character American physicist J. W. Gibbs recognized in vector algebra system of great utility for physicists, just as Hamilton had recognized the usefulness of quaternion. The end of the third century B.
C saw the close of the Golden Age of Greek mathematics. As the next century wore on, political strife work and anarchic conditions in Egypt proved more and more stifling to original scientific work and scholarship at Alexandrian Museum. Alexandria’s loss enriched the rest of the Mediterranean world, for learning was noticeably stimulated in those places to which the exiled Alexandrian scholars fled Until Diophantus once more brought fame to the Museum, Alexandria no longer enjoyed the primacy that it had once had over leading Eastern centers of learning. The last two centuries of the pre-Christian era saw the steady and relentless growth of the Roman power.
When Rome began to expand outside of peninsular Italy, it first gained mastery over the western half of the Mediterranean basin. Syracuse, though protected by ingenious military machines that the mathematician Archimedes had devise, yielded to siege in 21 B. C. , as Carthage did in 202 B. C.
The Essay on 1st Century Roman Empire and 21st Century
... reach and power of the Roman Empire during the 1st century B. C. was solidified with ... prototype political institutions in 21st century. American president is like Roman emperor with extensive powers but ... strategic important buffer zones. In the 21st century, direct subjugation ort geographical conquest is not ... Roman Empire’s reach and power was at its zenith during the first century B. C. as it ...
Then, after 200 B. C. , the Roman armies turned eastward into Greece and Asia Minor. Greece proper was conquered in 146 B. C. , and by 64 B.
C. Mesopotamia had fallen before the Roman legions. On the Ides of March in 44 B. C. , the daggers of Brutus, Cassius, and their fellow conspirators brought an abrupt end to the reign of Julius Caesar, .
