European History
How and in what ways did the writings of Karl Marx draw on the Enlightenment concepts of progress, natural law, and reason?
Skipping Stones of Thought
Rising from the foundation laid by the philosophes of the Enlightenment, Karl Marx introduced a philosophy that would examine the relation between government and the individual through the systematic application of the “reason” defined by the Enlightenment. Expounding upon the concepts of Rousseau and Hegel, Marx sought to refine his theories through unique vision and approach. The writings of Marx marked a progression of some Enlightenment ideals to a new level that would prove influential throughout history.
Karl Marx, a German economist, first came under the influence of a group termed the Young Hegelians while in college. The group would seek to draw revolutionary conclusions from the philosophy of G.W.F. Hegel who saw history as a process headed in the direction of a “conflict-free society.” Drawing inspiration from Hegel’s belief that the process of achieving this goal was through mental or spiritual means (Krauze 2), Marx believed that the process was completely material in that our mental side “is dominated by the forces of production.” (Krauze 3) From the ideals of Hegel, Marx would create his own version of a “conflict-free society” termed Communism in which everyone would control their “own means of production.” (Krauze 3)
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Stating that “Philosophers have only interpreted the world- the point is to change it”, Marx declared that philosophy must become reality. (Karl Marx 2) Interpreting the world was no longer enough, the scholar must be concerned with transforming it and the consciousness of its inhabitants. Marx believed that a “critique of experience together with a critique of ideas” was required. (Karl Marx 5) Instead of making abstract affirmations about a group of problems, Marx examined each problem in relation to the surrounding factors, reflecting on his Hegelian background. (Krauze 3)
Upon examining the works of Rousseau, a connection could also be seen to a communal form of socialism. Rousseau saw the division of labor as the cause for the desire for private possessions.
As soon as one man realized that it was useful for a single individual to have provisions for two, equality disappeared, property came into existence, labor was necessary” (Rousseau 51)
This development, in his view, spurred the beginning of social classes in which the lowest group doing the work while the higher group watched. (Rousseau 53) This stratification “put society in a ripe position for revolution.” (Karl Marx 6)
Upon analyzing the present structure and its implications Marx and Engels produced the Communist Manifesto which denied the necessity of the existence of classes and called for a return to simpler times. (Karl Marx 7) Rousseau called for a unification of the people against the enemy,
Let us unite…in order to protect the weak from oppression, restrain the ambitious, and assure everyone of possessing what belongs to him (Rousseau 56)
a concept that would be echoed in the Communist Manifesto.
Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Working men of all countries unite! (Marx 62)
In the Communist Manifesto, Marx argued that “human thought was determined by social and economic forces, particularly those related to the means of production.” (Karl Marx 3) History was a history of class struggle between the ruling class and the oppressed. Marx drew he conclusion that capitalism would be replaced by communism in a global scale revolt in which the ruling class was overthrown and eliminated by the working-class. (Karl Marx 2)
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Marx drew his “materialistic conception of history” from the author Ludwig Feuerbach. (Karl Marx 4) Feuerbach, who wrote The Essence of Christianity, believed that in creating God in his own image man had “alienated himself from himself.” (Karl Marx 8) This creation, in his opinion, reduced man to a “creature who required church and government to control him.” (Karl Marx 8) The abolition of religion would provide the means for man to overcome alienation. (Karl Marx 8) Marx applied this concept to property in that a communist society would end the “dehumanizing effect of private property.” (Karl Marx 9) The use of the concept of alienation reflects on his past involvement in the Young Hegelians.
Despite the fact that “Marx adopted the liberal idea…that human existence was defined by the basic need to work as a way of sustaining life” (Hunt 812), he broke with the tradition of appealing to natural rights in justification of social reform. (Karl Marx 1) Marx claimed that the belief that “what we ‘know’ depends upon where we are situated in history and society” (Harper 1) reflected the ‘idealized kingdom of the bourgeoisie’ presented by the thinkers of the Enlightenment. However, Marx’s belief that his position time allowed him to understand History and its laws reflected the scientific application prevalent throughout the Enlightenment. (Harper 1)
The great men, who in France prepared men’s mind for the coming revolution, were themselves extreme revolutionists… everything must justify its existence before the judgment seat of reason or give up existence…Now, for the first time, appeared the light of day, the kingdom of reason; henceforth superstition, injustice, privilege, oppression were to be superseded by eternal truth, eternal right, equality based on nature and the inalienable rights of man. We know today that this kingdom of reason was nothing more than the idealized kingdom of the bourgeoisie; that this eternal right found its realization in bourgeois justice; that this equality reduced itself to bourgeois equality before the law: that bourgeois property was proclaimed as one of the essential rights of man: and that the government of reason, the contrat of Rousseau came into being, and could only come into being, as a democratic bourgeois republic. The great thinkers of the eighteenth century could, no more than their predecessors, go beyond the limits imposed upon them by their epochs. -Friedrich Engels (Harper 1)
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This passage reflects the thoughts of Friedrich Engels, the co-author of the Communist Manifesto and best friend to Karl Marx. The view of the philosophes is one of levels. Engels sees the state of society at different levels, with a “conflict-free society” at the top of the hierarchy. The philosophes and those who came before them were constrained by the thoughts of the past and ruling and were forced to dwell on the same level as a prisoner of the “limits imposed”. Upon interpretation of this statement it can be seen that Communism was believed by its authors to be the exception in the assignment of levels. Marx saw Communism to be the closest option to the “conflict-free society” of Hegel. The writers of the Enlightenment are acknowledged for their influence on the “coming revolution”, but still remain on the “imposed” level.
Marxism reflects the “scientific” systematic application of reason that characterized the Enlightenment. Marxism, in his view, is a “progress culminating in something very like the perfect society in which all people will be free to realize their full human potential.” (Harper 3) If the end result of a Marxist society is “fullself-realization…possible for all…then Marx shares the Enlightenment ideal of individualism; it simply holds that true individualism is impossible except within the context of communism.” (Harper 4)
In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.” (Marx 43)
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During the nineteenth century, Karl Marx and Max Weber were two of the most influential sociologist. Both their views on the rise of capitalism have various similarities and differences. They believe that capitalism is relatively new to the modern world. Their views differ on the rise of capitalism. Regardless of Marx and Weber s differences, both theorists agree that capitalism is a system of ...
By analyzing the thoughts of the Enlightenment, Karl Marx developed a theory of society that would remain influential throughout history. Expounding upon and departing from Enlightenment concepts, Marx used the ideas of the philosophes as stepping stones. Absorbing the vibration or ideas from each jump and skipping the stone on his path that were not to his liking, Marx blazed a trail of thought that would be followed by many curious pupils and scholars. Just as Marx followed and digressed from the paths of the past, often his followers skip along his philosophy, choosing the beliefs that fit their needs. This action could have been the reason for the Communist governments of the former Soviet Union and China not serving as exact replicas of Marxist thought. The selective nature exhibited by Marx remains prevalent today. Marx has joined the ranks of the great thinkers, where he will be followed, revered, or possibly simply skipped over.
Works Cited
Harper, Professor Micheal. “The Enlightenment Project Repudiated yet Affirmed: The Paradox of Marx and Engels’ Scientific Socialism.” Computer Software. Internet. Oct 1 1997.
Hunt, Linda, Martin, Thomas R., Rosenwein, Barbara H., Hsia, Po-chia, Smith, Bonnie S. The Challenge of the West: People and Cultures From the Stone Age to the Global Age. D.C. Heath and Company. Masachusetts. 1995.
“Karl Marx.” Computer Software. Internet. Jan 3 1998.
Krauze, Andrew, and Spencer, Lloyd. “Hegel for Beginners.” Computer Software. Internet. Jan 4 1998.
Marx, Karl, and Engels, Friedrich. The Communist Manifesto. Monthly Review Press. 1962.
Rousseau, Jean Jacques. Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. Hackett Publishing Co. 1992.
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