nuclear fission Fission chain reactions and their control The emission of several neutrons in the fission process leads to the possibility of a chain reaction if at least one of the fission neutrons induces fission in another fissile nucleus, which in turn fissions and emits neutrons to continue the chain. If more than one neutron is effective in inducing fission in other nuclei, the chain multiplies more rapidly. The condition for a chain reaction is usually expressed in terms of a multiplication factor, k, which is defined as the ratio of the number of fissions produced in one step (or neutron generation) in the chain to the number of fissions in the preceding generation. If k is less than unity, a chain reaction cannot be sustained.
If k = 1, a steady-state chain reaction can be maintained; and if k is greater than 1, the number of fissions increases at each step, resulting in a divergent chain reaction. The term critical assembly is applied to a configuration of fissionable material for which k = 1; if k > 1, the assembly is said to be supercritical. A critical assembly might consist of the fissile material in the form of a metal or oxide, a moderator to slow the fission neutrons, and a reflector to scatter neutrons that would otherwise be lost back into the assembly core. In a fission bomb it is desirable to have k as large as possible and the time between steps in the chain as short as possible so that many fissions occur and a large amount of energy is generated within a brief period (10-7 second) to produce a devastating explosion. If one kilogram of uranium-235 were to fission, the energy released would be equivalent to the explosion of 20, 000 tons of the chemical explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT).
The Term Paper on The Chain Of Command Is Broken
The Chain of Command is Broken In a certain Army unit there is a complete lack of communication between upper and lower echelons. To further hinder this communication problem each of the upper and lower echelons are further subdivided into segments that each require their own path of communication. Additionally, as if this wasn't enough of a problem, the segments of each echelon are required to ...
In a controlled nuclear reactor k is kept equal to unity for steady-state operation.
A practical reactor, however, must be designed with k somewhat greater than unity. This permits power levels to be increased if desired, as well as allowing for the following: the gradual loss of fuel by the fission process; the buildup of “poisons” among the fission products being formed that absorb neutrons and lower the k value; and the use of some of the neutrons produced for research studies or the preparation of radioactive species for various applications (see below).
The value of k is controlled during the operation of a reactor by the positioning of movable rods made of a material that readily absorbs neutrons (i. e. , one with a high neutron-capture cross section), such as boron, cadmium, or hafnium. The delayed-neutron emitters among the fission products increase the time between successive neutron generations in the chain reaction and make the control of the reaction easier to accomplish by the mechanical movement of the control rods.
Fission reactors can be classified by the energy of the neutrons that propagate the chain reaction. The most common type, called a thermal reactor, operates with thermal neutrons (those having the same energy distribution as gas molecules at ordinary room temperatures).
In such a reactor the fission neutrons produced (with an average kinetic energy of more than 1 MeV) must be slowed down to thermal energy by scattering from a moderator, usually consisting of ordinary water, heavy water (D 2 O), or graphite. In another type termed an intermediate reactor the chain reaction is maintained by neutrons of intermediate energy, and a beryllium moderator may be used. In a fast reactor fast fission neutrons maintain the chain reaction, and no moderator is needed. All of the reactor types require a coolant to remove the heat generated; water, a gas, or a liquid metal may be used for this purpose, depending on the design needs.
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... 11% of Japan's electricity was produced with hydroelectric energy and 1% by other forms of energy. Nuclear fission is the cheapest and cleanest ... of such radiation -- e. g. , X rays, gamma rays, neutrons -- has a slightly different effect on living tissue. Accordingly, one ... (4) The reprocessing of 'spent'; nuclear fuel rods is an indispensable part of any nuclear reactor, and so must be considered as ...
For details about reactor types, see nuclear reactor: Nuclear fission reactors. Uses of fission reactors and fission products A nuclear reactor is essentially a furnace used to produce steam or hot gases that can provide heat directly or drive turbines to generate electricity. Nuclear reactors are employed for commercial electric-power generation throughout much of the world and as a power source for propelling submarines and certain kinds of surface vessels. Another important use for reactors is the utilization of their high neutron fluxes for studying the structure and properties of materials and for producing a broad range of radionuclides, which, along with a number of fission products, have found many different applications.
Heat generated by radioactive decay can be converted into electricity through the thermoelectric effect in semiconductor materials and thereby produce what is termed an atomic battery. When powered by either a long-lived, beta-emitting fission product (e. g. , strontium-90, calcium-144, or promethium-147) or one that emits alpha particles (plutonium-238 or curium-244), these batteries are a particularly useful source of energy for cardiac pacemakers and for instruments employed in remote, unmanned facilities, such as those in outer space, the polar regions of the Earth, or the open seas. There are many practical uses for other radionuclides, as discussed in radioactivity: Applications of radioactivity.
