Role of the Physical Exercises in the Process of Aging physical activity can retard a decline in many of the determinants of physical ability. Exercise has been shown to improve strength, [2-10] endurance, [11,12] flexibility, [13] and balance [14] in older adults. Increasing the level of physical activity, therefore, might retard individuals aging processes. In addition, sustained physical activity throughout life could prevent the onset of some disabilities. Outcome studies examining the preventive role of activity are measured in several ways. One hierarchy of health status proposes four levels of outcome: disease, impairment, functional limitation, and disability (see Table 1).
The occurrence of disease as it relates to physical activity is a common outcome measurement (eg, the effect of exercise on the incidence of myocardial infarction).
Measures of maximum oxygen consumption, flexibility, and muscle strength are examples of the effect of exercise on physical impairments. Improvements in functional limitations are demonstrated by evaluating performance with higher order physical measures, such as balance, gait velocity, or stair-climbing speed. The ability to perform activities of daily living (ADL) is used to determine the direct effects of physical activity on disability. Most investigations into how physical activity affects aging use changes in performance as a measure of outcome. These studies involve the introduction of one or more types of exercise (e.g. resistance training) as a short-term intervention that is followed by a limited performance measurement as an outcome (e.g.
The Review on Examples of Research Proposal on Physical Activity and Environmental Perception
Background and Rationale Gender is an important confounder in the epidemiology of physical activity, where men are more physically active than women (Aadahl, Kjaer & Jorgensen, 2007; Azevedo et.al., 2007). Within sport research, the focus on race and religiosity from a social science perspective has for a long time been a marginal research area. The early research on race and sport has been ...
isokinetic muscle strength).
Unfortunately, changes in functional limitations more directly related to aging are only occasionally used as outcomes. Although an evaluation of the effects of sustained exercise on the aging process would be the most enlightening outcome measurement, few such studies exist. This is partially a result of confounding factors, such as a high dropout rate and the impact of concurrent disease. It is often more practical to measure more limited outcomes in an attempt to discover some potential benefits of physical activity. Aging is generally accompanied by a progressive decline in the level of physical activity.[33] As individuals retire from employment, they may become more sedentary and often eventually rely on others to assist them in ADL. Some activities are curtailed voluntarily, whereas others become too difficult because of functional limitations.
The reduction in normal activities itself could lead to disability resulting from disuse, muscle atrophy, loss of flexibility, and diminished endurance.[15] This disuse disability perpetuates a further reduction of activity, thus setting up a vicious cycle of disuse and declining function. Although it seems self-evident that maintenance of normal physical activity would slow the age-related decline in strength and endurance and retard the rate of disability, the information available is limited. In Finland, Rantanen et al[34] conducted a longitudinal investigation of changes in isometric muscle strength of individuals with varying levels of everyday physical activities. The participants were enrolled at age 75 years and observed for 5 years. They were divided into four groups on the basis of the level of self-reported activity: (a) remained active, (b) remained sedentary, (c) decreased activity, and (d) increased activity. The isometric strength of the participants limbs and trunk were tested at enrollment and again at completion of the study. All measurements of strength declined, on average, for the entire study population except for knee extension. Activity preserved strength better for knee extension in women and for trunk extension in men, but the number of male participants was too small for a complete analysis. Young et al[16] published a similar study, but the outcomes were more directly related to function and disability.
The Essay on Activity Based Costing Functional Areas
ACTIVITY BASED COSTING AND MANAGEMENT: AN OVERVIEW Activity Based Costing (ABC) is more relevant than traditional costing in companies, where product mix is diverse in; batch sizes, physical sizes, degree or complexity, and raw material characteristics. ABC will also provide more decision useful information for the service industry, characterized by diversity in range of services provided. If the ...
The nearly 4,000 participants, aged 70 years and older, reported their levels of physical activity at enrollment. Activities, ranging from household chores to moderate exercise, were estimated in metabolic equivalents. The level of activity of each participant was then rated as low, medium, and high. Three to 5 years later, the participants functional status was determined by self-report and by performance-based measurements. Those individuals whose activity levels were rated as medium or high showed a significantly better functional status than those with a low level in the areas of basic ADL, home management, physical endurance, and strength-related tasks. The types of exercise most often employed as interventions in community-dwelling older adults are resistance training, endurance training, flexibility training, and balance training.
Muscle strength as an outcome measure of exercise is easily assessed and therefore appears frequently in study reports. Improvements in strength, however, are not necessarily reflected in improved function.[5,35] Several studies have suggested that muscle strength is closely associated with functional ability. Triceps strength has been shown to be correlated with walking speed in independently living elderly men and women.[36] Rantanen et al[37] demonstrated that difficulty in stair climbing ability was reflected in poor knee extension strength. General mobility is associated with maximal isometric strength of the upper limbs, lower limbs, and trunk.[38] Works used: Chandler JM, Hadley EC, Exercise to improve physiologic and functional performance in old age, Clin Geriatr Med. 1996; 12:761-784..
The Essay on Fitness Training Functional Train
Most fitness and training facilities now have stability balls, foam rolls, balance boards and other "fun" toys as part of their conditioning equipment. These are part of a new trend in the strength and conditioning field called "functional training." Definition Functional training is the action of training "function", a general term that meaning "role or duty." Functional training is the science ...
