The urban sprawl that has characterized American growth patterns for the past 45 years has been held responsible for a host of problems, including: profligate energy use (Levinson and Strate, 1981 and Newman and Kenworthy, 1989); rising municipal infrastructure costs (Neilson Associates, 1987; Real Estate Research Corporation, 1974; and Frank, 1989); the loss of agricultural and wetlands (OTA, 1984 and Krause and Hare, 1975); the loss of community values (Newman and Kenworthy, 1989 and Freedman, 1975); the erosion of current or potential tax bases in urban centers (Weaver, 1987; Wachs, 1977); and the decline of urban environmental quality (RERC, 1974 and Berry et al, 1974).
While many factors contribute to sprawl, the suburbanization of America could not have occurred without the automobile. And if auto use remains cheap and easy, we can expect continued sprawl (Lansing and Hendricks, 1982; Kitamura, 1988).
Given the evidence that low density development in turn leads to increased reliance on automobiles, the problem appears to feed on itself (Levinson and Wyn, 1964; Pushkarev and Zupan, 1971; Allman et al, 1982; and Holtzclaw, 1991).
To address this problem, planners must seek to better understand and address the significant impact that transportation decisions can have on urban development. There are two main issues facing American planners.
The Essay on Urban Sprawl 4
... trusted to pass policy that will help to ease the problem of urban sprawl? For years the government has taken a passive role ... Have we done our part to curb this problem; how much is too much? Urban sprawl should not be a cause for concern ... the increase of population; they think that urban sprawl is the culprit that causes many problems in the environment. Finally, they think that ...
The first derives from the fact that suburbanization is currently the norm, both for work and residences. Less than 10% of the total population work in the central business districts of traditional cities (Lowry, 1988).
The first issue, then, is how best to provide access to existing jobs and residential amenities not located in the city center. The second issue is what shape future growth should take. Transportation decisions will be critical to both of these issues. The conventional view is that suburban travel demands cannot be accommodated by transit. This notion is premised on a narrow view of fixed-route, large vehicle transit. However,there is evidence that in many cases flexible and responsive transit service can be developed to serve the existing needs of suburban residents and workers.
Several new approaches, including busways, multi-center, timed-transfer networks and paratransit, offer viable alternatives. Indeed, the evidence from Canadian and European cities indicates that in many cases suburban development and effective public transit can be compatible (Cervero, 1982 and UMTA, 1988).
The conventional view is also that continued sprawl is inevitable and that planners must simply respond by building more roads (Kingham, 1976; Lowry, 1988; Steiner, 1991).
Evidence for this proposition is provided by pointing to the fact that transit is used primarily by those who work or live in central business districts, whereas the majority of the population relies on their cars. To assert that this pattern demonstrates an underlying preference for automobile use assumes that transportation and land use decisions have evolved in the absence of public planning. However, both travel behavior and land use patterns are at least in part also functions of public policy. The relationships between transportation planning, land use patterns and economic growth are complex. They involve interacting social, economic and geographical factors. Transportation is only one of several factors affecting regional development (Briggs, 1981; Mills, 1981; Mountain West, 1987; Newman and Kenworthy, 1989).
Nonetheless, the effects of past transportation decisions and investments are apparent in contemporary development patterns (University of Michigan, 1961; Barton-Aschman Associates, 1968; Downs, 1982 and Deakin, 1988).
The Essay on Pacific Asias Economic Development
Pacific Asias Economic Development, All the Pacific Asian countries have a long history of economic involvement with the United States. Lately the region has been going through a few economic problems. The United States is clearly the only country that will assist the region in overcoming this crisis. Pacific Asia has proved itself to be a break through region in achieving great financial and ...
In particular, the current decentralization of services and employment could not have occurred in the way it did without extensive reliance on the highway (Glaab and Brown, 1976 and Mahady and Tsitsos, 1981).
The traditional focus of transportation development has been the automobile. Federal and state aid to transportation has focussed almost exclusively on the continued development of the national highway system (Deakin, 1988 and Konheim and Ketcham, 1991).[98] Automobile use has been heavily subsidized, while comparatively little attention has been paid to encouraging walking, bicycling or transit use.[99] Instead of being necessitated by urban development patterns, then, highway-oriented transportation plans should be seen as at least in part responsible for the problems of sprawl. Land use policies, or lack thereof, have also contributed to sprawl. While current practice is changing, American land policies have traditionally had little focus on controlling growth (Altshuler, 1981; Bay Vision 2020).
Indeed, low-density suburbanization has been encouraged by federal tax deductions and mortgage guarantees for single family residences (Heilbrun, 1987 and Pucher, 1988).
Many of the direct costs of servicing low density developments are hidden and not passed directly on to the homeowner (Frank, 1989).
Similarly, local density limits and red lining encourage sprawl. Even where growth is a concern, fragmented regional governmental structures hinder efforts to address the issue (Heilbrun, 1987; Bay Vision 2020, 1991).
While some affluent neighborhoods have passed no-growth ordinances, the net effect has simply been to push sprawl elsewhere. This fragmented local government structure also lacks the capacity to engage in the comprehensive planning required to integrate social, environmental, transit and other transportation considerations into regional development. Continued reliance on the automobile as the only solution to the transportation demands of the future is unlikely to be successful. Continued emphasis on highway construction may be counter-productive.
The Term Paper on Hub City Transit Development
With a population of 50,000 plus residents, Hattiesburg is seen as the fifth largest city in the state of Mississippi. It is also known as, “Hub City of the South” and is home to The University of Southern Mississippi, William Carey University, Antonelli College, Pearl River Community College, and Healing Touch School of Massage Therapy. This population in itself consists of 24,355 college ...
As is noted above, added capacity will not solve the growing problems of air pollution and congestion. And additional highway capacity further drains city centers of their dynamism, and burdens those without access to cars. Newman and Kenworthy’s study of major cities around the world concluded that based on auto access a city’s center can accommodate a maximum of about 120,000 jobs. Beyond that point, office space must be sacrificed for additional parking and road space. On the other hand, providing access to the city center by mixed modes of road and transit can allow a city to grow beyond that point while remaining attractive and livable (Newman and Kenworthy, 1989).
Where an auto-oriented transportation infrastructure is related to increased sprawl, land-use planning focussed on attaining higher densities, together with well integrated transit development can have the opposite effects.
The connection between high density development and reduced travel demand is well established (Newman and Kenworthy, 1989).
Transit can facilitate higher densities. For example, a recent study of nine North American cities with rail transit concluded that transit can induce high density commercial development because it represents to developers and employers an investment in fixed facilities that will be in place for a long time (RPA, 1991).
Other studies conclude that well planned transit systems can concentrate housing and urban amenities around transit lines and stations, reducing reliance on cars. Total travel demand in regions that have successfully integrated high density and transit may be lower than in other areas by factors of four (Pushkarev and Zupan, 1971), or even eight (Holtzclaw, 1991).
Finally, where urban sprawl increases municipal service costs, municipalities can share the costs of expanding transit services with the developers who benefit from access to their projects (Orski and Zukoski, 1985; Urban Mobility Corporation, 1985; UMTA, 1988; and Cervero, 1982).
Any policy directed at the problems of sprawl must address Americans’ high willingness to pay for the space and privacy offered by suburban lifestyles.
The Essay on Pre-Feasibility Of Light Rail Transit In Dhaka City
ABSTRUCT: Dhaka, the capital, administrative and commercial hub of Bangladesh is subjected to acute traffic congestion, inadequate traffic management, high accident rates and increasing air pollution problems. The deteriorating traffic conditions are affecting the city’s efficiency performance and are being considered as a major impediment for her economic growth and development, causing ...
In addition, there is no question that automobile use is at least in part determined by Americans’ preference for the privacy, convenience and speed of their cars. Nonetheless, it would be inappropriate to conclude that our reliance on the automobile is strictly due to an innate preference for highway travel. As Pucher notes, “for the vast majority of Americans, the alternative to the automobile is immobility” (Pucher, 1988).
It would also be inappropriate to conclude that there is not significant scope for change. The evidence from Europe and Canada is that by incorporating mixed modes, including transit, cycling and pedestrian access into urban plans, future development could actually enhance “access” while reducing the demand for – and social costs of – travel.
