In all parts of the world the rural population compares favourably with the people who inhabit the cities in matters of religion, being more inclined in this direction. This disparity arises from a number of factors of which the most prominent is the pre-occupation with agriculture, which depends very much upon Nature despite stupendous progress that science may have made in any country. This dependence upon Nature gives an added importance to the natural forces in the life of man, who consequently indulges in a variety of religious activities, offerings and prayers designed either to pacify or to please the deified powers which play such an important role in his life.
In the village, life is spent in the lap of Nature, in sharp contrast with the life in the cities, where the invention of modern scientific implements has reduced materially the influence of the seasons and Nature upon the lives of the inhabitants. The life of the people in the villages is almost completely exposed to the vagaries of Nature, but at the same time the rustic derives satisfaction from the opportunity of observing, at first hand, Nature at its most beautiful and red in tooth and claw as well. Thus, rural religion originates in the worship of Nature.
The same holds true in the context of Indian society also, where the rural population comprises some 80% of the entire population of the country. Besides, 60% of the villagers are farmers. Science has not made much progress in India, the preponderance of Nature being evident in every aspect of life.1 1. RELIGIOUS-MINDEDNESS IN INDIA
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Thinkers in all times and at all places have agreed in regarding Indians as religious-minded people, in the words of Sir Harcourt Butier, “The Indians are essentially religious as Europeans are essentially secular. Religion is still the alpha and the omega of Indians’ life.”2 Besides being religious, Indians are also professed to be of a philosophical propensity. Many people have looked upon Samkara’s Mayavada as representative of Indian thought. Most thinkers conceive of Indians as a people who contemplate incapable of religion and philosophy, the after world, heaven, hell and salvation.
Morris Opler has written, “The fact that the highest goal of Hindu is to eliminate earthly concerns, desires and personal existence itself, introduces a large element of asceticism, intellectualism, detachment and withdrawal into Hindu philosophy. In no other country have so many men renounced the world, and in no other place is there so much fasting and mortification of the flesh. The world is considered transitory. In reality it is an escape from the world and from the forms which make existence in the world necessary.”3 Thus Opler conceived Indian religion as impractical and escapist in the extreme. But, on the other hand, Osear Lewis found Indian religion essentially practical and realistic in the course of his study of Rampur village.4 Distinguishing between Indian classical religion and Indian rural religion, S.C. Dube has written.
“Early, Hinduism as it is practised in the village is not the Hinduism of the classical-philosophical a system of India for it possesses neither the metaphysical height nor the abstract content of the latter. It is a religion of fasts and festivals, in which prescribed rituals cover all the major crises of the life… Analysis of Life histories reveals that spiritualism cannot be said to be keynote in the life of the community, far from it the religion appears to be a practical one.”5 In substantiating the opinion of Dube, Lewis adduced evidence which was the result of a scientific study of religion carried out in Rampur village. These proofs make it obvious that religion in the village of India has been practical.
Although, it would not be very advisable to apply the conclusion derived from the study of one particular village to the rural population of country as a whole, it can nevertheless be confidently asserted that rural religion which does not bear the mark of Sanskritization, is realistic and practical. Yet another reason is the poverty and lack of education existing among the villagers. They harbour many superstitious beliefs, and they have to labour hard in life. In these circumstances, it is almost conceivable that there should be an element of intellectuality and spirituality in their religion. In the absence of scientific data, it cannot be said inconclusively that Indian rural religion is realistic and practical but this contention is borne out in a general way by a view of the life of the villages of India. 2. ASPEETS OF INDIAN RELIGION
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The main aspects of Indian religion are the worship of gods and goddesses, sacrifices for them, belief in ghosts, various kinds of sanskaras or rituals and religious festivals. To religion are attached many moral beliefs. At present, a discussion on the gods and goddesses will precede anything else, for the simple reason that rural religion develops around them.6 2. 1. Gods and Goddesses. In general, the following classes of gods and goddesses are worshipped in Indian villages: 2. 1. 1. God and Goddesses of Hindus. The rural Hindus everywhere worship the gods and goddesses of the Hindu religion. The most important among them is Shiva, who is worshipped in different forms, and under different names. Besides Shiva, the names of Sanskrit and Bholebaba are also famous for this deity. Hanumanna is also worshipped in the villages.
He is also called by other names and his worship is believed to be instrumental in preventing many kinds of catastrophies. People of all castes in India worship Shiva and Hanumanna. Besides these two, the other deities worshipped in the villages of India are Vishnu, Rama, Krishna, Agni, Valmiki, Jagannath and Sun god etc. 2. 1. 2 Non-Hindu Gods and Goddesses. The credulous Indian villager does not rest satisfied with worshipping this formidable repertoire of Hindu gods and goddesses, but extends his respect and reverence to many other deities which cannot be called Hindu by tradition, among them being Shitala Maharani who protects people from smallpox epidemie and who sends troubles in the form of smallpox when displeased, Bhuiyaan Devi who is considered very powerful and Sati Maharani, etc.
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2. 1. 3 Rural gods and goddesses. Besides the above-mentioned gods and goddesses, every village has its own rural gods and goddesses are village, and it is worshipped from time of time. To it, too, are attached many interesting and common tales.7 2. 2. Worship of Plants, Trees and Animals.
In the villages of India, many trees, plants and animals are considered divine. The banyan, need and papal are treated as divine and are worshipped. The worship of Tulsa, in particular, is considered important everywhere in India. The cow is called Gautama and is considered to be divine. Cow dung is used to cover any place which is to be purified. At some places even the ox and the snake are objects of worship. In the villages where a tribe lives the animals and plants of totem are considered divine.
2. 3. Beliefs in Ghosts and Witches.
Besides tie numerous gods and goddesses worshipped in the Indian villages, the rural populace credit the existence ghosts, instituting different kinds of activities designed to appease them, please them or get rid of them. Whenever a man or a woman in the village comes to an untimely demise, or dies in an accident, or is murdered, or commits suicide, it is believed that his or her soul is dissatisfied and roams the village in some or the other form. The souls of men become ghosts while the souls of the women witches, both of which are believed inhabit tree, graveyards, the banks of rivers or ponds and sometimes even in the houses, The two kinds show an affinity for their own types and harass the living members of their corresponding sexes.9 2. 4.Belief in Good Souls.
The inhabitants of the villages do not confine their credulity to a belief only in wicked souls but they extend to it belief in some good souls as well. These souls do not suffer from any discrimination on account of sex, being either feminine or masculine. They are benevolent and assist people in different ways. If after the passing away of a saint or a great personage, the people believe his soul to be dwelling within the village. They take it for granted that it is protecting the entire village. All kinds of gifts are deposited at the supposed dwelling place of this magnanimous being. 2. 5. Faith in Dreams.
Besides a belief in these invisible souls, rural religion also includes faith in dreams. The faith in the importance of dreams is almost universal but their explanations in different places do not correspond. Generally, when a person dreams after four O’clock in the morning it is believed to be prophetic, either for good or bad. Actually, even though the villagers themselves do not perceive any visible and special relation between what they see in dreams and the real world. Yet they persist in their beliefs about the dreams. The main cause of this notion is their lack of education, due to which many facts are unthinkingly associated with dreams.10 2. 6. Ideas of Auspieious and Inauspieious.
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Many kinds of superstitions concerning good and evil are to be found in rural people. For a particular activity some particular days and months are considered auspicious and as having a good portent. In the ease of important works and rituals the local pundits make calculations and advise the interested parties in respect of the auspicious day and hour. For example, it is considered a bad omen, even, down-right ominous, to travel towards the north on Thursdays and Fridays. Travel in an easterly direction is not advised on Mondays and Saturdays. 2. 7. Religious Consideration in Dietary Habits.
Besides travel, another aspect of human life to be influenced by the auspiciousness of the various days in a week is the food taking, the morning meal, to be taken after a bath, consists of different ingredients on different days, so is ordained. For example, it is good to eat betel on Sunday and curd on Tuesday. 2. 8. Considerations of Good and Bad Omens.
Along with the thought of the auspicious, rural religion devotes attention to considerations of good and bad omens. Especially, it is considered very detrimental if some bad omen bodes ill when some new activity is being initiated. These bad omens take a variety of forms. It is considered to be a bad omen if one comes across a person blind in one eye during travel. It is not considered good form to sneeze at the outset of a journey and if one does sneeze, one can wait for a few moments. Similarity, it is a bad omen if a cat crosses one’s path while one is proceeding somewhere. 2. 9. Superstitions in Natural Phenomenon.
The villagers attach all kinds of superstitions to natural phenomenon. For example, the solar and the lunar eclipses are believed to be the causes of the catastrophes of Rah and Kato. An earth tremor is attributed to the undulations of the snake which bears the earth on its fangs, a hard job by any standards. Absence of rain or drought, too much rain, untimely rain, etc, are attributed to the displeasure on the part of the god Indri. Superstitions are even more numerous in tribal villages where there is even greater ignorance and lack of education, the fundamental causes of superstitions. 2. 10. Assumptions Nonearning the Supernatural.
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In rural religion where there is superstition, ignorance, unnecessary ritualism, etc., on the one hand there are also a considerable number of assumptions pertaining to the supernatural on the other. For example, heaven, hell, rebirth, salvation, virtue, sin, etc. are everywhere believed to be real though people differ from village to village in their explanations and understanding of them. Most of the people believe that heaven and hell are two good and bad places where the souls of good and bad people respectively enjoy in pleasure or suffer pain after death. Some people believe that heaven and hell are attained not after death but in this very life.
2. 11. Moral Beliefs.
In this way, many moral beliefs are also enjoined to rural religion. A good person is a soul superior to all and sundry, and yet all people do not agree to the elements which are characteristic of those who are superior. Nevertheless, a benevolent person of high character is one who worships God with fervour. He is commonly recognised as a religious person or superior soul.
3. THE VILLAGE TEMPLE
The village temple holds a very important place in the life of the village. It, of course, has its religious importance but in the village it also exerts ostensible influence upon the social sphere as well. As a matter of fact, the temple in a village becomes the centre to public programmes. And even otherwise, the inseparability of rural relation from the villager lends to the village temple an importance in rural life.11 3. 1 Importance of the Temple in Village Life
The temple is not merely a place of worship. If the priest of the temple is an intelligent and learned person he has an important status and role in the village life. He becomes a respected leader of the village, to whom much importance is attached by the villagers who look upon him as a representative of God. Often his premonition and forecasts have profound influence upon the thinking and conduct of the villagers. In this way the temple priest is an astrologer, prophet and doctor, conductor of the prayers and story-teller all the same at one time. In these circumstances, the temple in the village has a comprehensive influence upon the life of the village, and instead of remaining merely a place of worship the temple becomes an institution. 3. 1. 1. Religious Importance.
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First and foremost, the temple has a religious importance. At almost all the major occasions of religious importance festivals are held and the entire population of the village congregates to the temple to worship. In the temple an idol of God is placed. A Brahmin priest makes arrangements for the maintenance of the temple. He bathes the idol of God and worships it daily and at these occasions many villagers are present. After the prayers the priest distributes sweets among the predominantly adolescent audience. In addition to this daily routine, special congregations are invited and organised for praying, at more or less regular intervals. Group discussions are also held. At the major festivals the idol is decorated, the attendance being more numerous and the distributed sweets being in greater quantity.12 3. 1. 2. Social Importance.
As has been mentioned on a number of previous occasions the temple has importance in the life of the village from the social viewpoint also. The temple becomes a place for congregating when people from all the castes get together to take part in the occasion being celebrated at the temple. Through the medium of the temple people of different castes get an opportunity to meet each other.13 In this way the temple becomes a centre of social meeting.
And at times, other than when the prayers are being conducted, old men and women can be seen gossiping, thus transforming the temple into a place for mutual relief of overwhelming thoughts and desires or some such thing. Sometimes even the most important meetings of the village are held in the temple, for it is a sacred and important place besides which it is spacious enough to accommodate many people. Many programmes for social welfare are conducted in the temples. Sometimes the temple is used as a medium for collecting funds in order to finance different kinds of public works in the village.14 3. 1. 3. Moral Importance.
Besides its social and religious importance, the village temple is important from the moral viewpoint as well, because it is a symbol of the village morality and its religious fervour. Often the priest in the temple is called upon to make judgment of good and bad in the moral problems which beset the villagers The sort of thing has been carried very far because incidents are not completely leaking where a person considered guilty and worthy of punishment is released on the mere word of the pundit on the ground that the priest is a religious and benevolent person whose words are invaluable.15 3. 1. 4. Cultural Importance.
The cultural life of the village is also enriched by the temple. In the temple devotional songs and congregations for this purpose, are held. On such occasions all sorts of musical instruments are used. Dances are also arranged in temple and performed in front of the idol of God. This kind of practise is particularly in vogue in temples of South India. The temples which possess a fair amount of property are generally well and lavishly decorated. In this way, the temple has both artistic and cultural value.
There is yet another point of cultural importance of the temple. In the life of the rural people many kinds of rituals are related to the temple. The marriage performed in temple, be it publicly performed or secretly, is held to be seared and inviolable. In many villages the marital rituals are performed in the village itself. On some seared occasions the husband and wife go together to visit the deity and to receive his blessing. In the temples, the wives and mothers propitiate respectively for their husbands and their children and make presents when their desires are fulfilled.
3. 1. 5. Educational Importance.
In ancient India the temples were educational centres as well and even today schools are held in many temples. Mostly, the priest is the teacher. And this leads the people to believe that the education imparted by the priest to them will make them religious and moral. Besides the children, the priest educates adult men and women also in various things. If the personality of the priest is magnetic and inspiring the villagers take their problems to him and accept the solutions which he suggests.
3. 1. 6. Recreational Importance.
The temples do not also fall short of maternal for the recreation of the village people. Often gymnasia are attached to the village temple, because, for one, the temple is generally situated outside the village in a clean and open place and, for another, it is considered more beneficial to take exercise under the protection and the benevolence of gods like Hanumana than otherwise. Every now and then, competitions in wrestling are organised, the whole affair being characterised by a lot of fanfare and public acclaim.
The arrangement for new programmes at regular intervals in the temple serves to relieve monotony and creates variety, all of which serve to entertain the people. The population of the Indian villages looks upon a person invested with the powers of meeting out justice as a representative of a messenger from God. And for this reason, the village priest, in this part, of a representative or messenger of God, is sometimes called upon to intervene in complicated cases and to do justice. In addition to doing justice the priest also prescribes the kind penance which a person should do in order to remove the stains of sin done to him. 3.2 Festivals of the Temple
The festivals of temple often take place at times when they can influence quite considerably the activity of agriculture. And because the festivals of the village generally coincide with these, the whole process attaches even more importance for the villager to the temple and makes it the actual symbol of the religious aspects of rural life. The result is that the temple thus becomes related to the general life of the village. From the preening description of the importance of the temple in rural life, it is evident that the temple contributes in an important way to each and every aspect of life which the villager leads. By the advent of new thought and the influence of the town, which is making rural life secular, the temple is losing its importance.
Since the institution of zamindari has been abolished, the landlord’s can no longer afford the lavish expenditure they were accustomed to and the temples consequently suffer because of the discontinuation of grants and aid given by the landlords. But nevertheless the villages that retain their faith in religion still attach the old traditional importance to the village temple. Now India is a secular state but it would not be advisable to abolish or be careless towards the temple because it is not merely a place for religious practises but a centre of the various activities of village life. The need is for a slight transformation in the programmes organised in the temple.