decision making in Educational Organization
Yam P. Bhusal
Kathmandu University
School of Education
Bal Kumari, Lalitpur
April 2010
Decision Making in Educational Organization
Yam P. Bhusal
M Phil, KUSOED
ABSTRACT. In this article decision making process in educational organization are discussed with several models. A classical, administrative, incremental, mixed-scanning and garbage can models can be used in educational organization as per the requirements of time and situation of that organization. Problem identification or perceive or understand the problem is the first stage as input; generate, evaluate and selection of the best solution is the second stage as process. Planning and implementation of selected alternatives is the third stage as output in decision making process in educational organization. In this way overall evaluation and modification of the entire process is the fourth stage as review of decision making process. However decision making process should be participative, open and democratic in educational organization.
Key words: Decision making models (Classical, Administrative, Incremental, Mixed-scanning, Garbage can model) Decision making Process,
Introduction
Decision making is an act of logic to be done in a particular situation. It involves bringing to a resolution, making specific determination to achieve a result and then at least defining some of the limitations on how to achieve that result. It is a matter of value judgment and of wisdom. Generally decisions means choice made from available alternatives and decision making is the process of identifying problems and opportunities and resolving them. “A decision process is made up of a stream of action-taking steps that begins with claims by stakeholders drawn from signals that seem important and ends when a decision has been adopted” (Nutt, 1993).
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A decision making is a choice between alternatives. “Decision making is general pattern of action found in the rational administration of all functional and task areas in organization” (Hoy & Miskel, 2001, P. 316).
It is a dynamic process, so that it can solve the organizational problems.
Actually decision making is the process of choosing the best alternatives for reaching objectives. It is a general pattern of action found in the rational administration of all functional & task areas in educational organization. Generally the rational of ‘taking’ decision or decision making is solving the problems which are appears in particular organization. For this purpose the major responsibility of leaders of educational organization is to preserve a constant look out for actual potential problem.
Decision making is the participative action in any educational organization. But the “teacher participation in shared decision making surfaced as a dominant theme in the reform and restructuring movements in the late 1980s, but controversy still persists over the best way to measure teacher involvement” (Ferrara &Repa, 1993).
Gathering information for planning and monitoring purposes can enhance shared decision making in schools.
Models of Decision making
There may be several types of decisions to be taken and implemented in any educational organization. Generally decision is routine and one shot occurrence type are in practice. Programmed decisions or structured decisions are routine and repetitive. These types of decision in educational organization are taken again and again as per the requirements of objectives of that organization. Non- programmed decision or unstructured decision are taken by an organization while they faces the particular problem which is not in routine or schedule. This one-short occurrence type of decision making is may be or may not be taken again. According to Hoy & Miskel(2001), on their book Educational Administration; Classical, administrative, incremental and mixed scanning models of decision making are suggested.
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Classical model of decision making theory assumes that decisions should completely rational and it focus on optimizing strategy by looking the best possible alternative to maximize the accomplishment the goals and objectives. While taking decision; if any organization adopts the classical model of decision Making that should follow the different stages as problem is identification, establishment Goals & objectives, construction of the possible alternatives, consideration of the consequences of each alternatives, evaluation of all the alternatives in terms of goals & objectives, selection of the best alternative i.e. The one that maximizes the goals & objectives. Finally, the decision is implemented and evaluated. It is a normative model rather than a descriptive model; so that it is considered as unrealistic model of making decision in educational organization.
Having several limitations of the classical model, a realistic conceptual model of decision making is evolved as administrative model. Hoy & Miskel suggested that to take the decision by an administrator or a leader should follow the basic assumptions on this model of decision making. This is a dynamic process of decision making which solves the problems and creates others is assumption one to be considered while taking decision. Perfect rationality in decision making is not possible; so that the leaders look to satisfice because they do not have cognitive capacity and ability to capitalize on the decision making process. This is the second assumption of administrative model. “Effective administration requires rational decision making” (Hoy & Miskel, p.318).
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While making decision in any educational organization leader follow a general pattern of action as recognize and define the problem or issue, analyze the difficulties in the situation, establish criteria for a satisfactory solution, develop a strategy for action, initiate a plan of action, and evaluate the outcomes that decision is the third assumption in administrative model of decision making. Decisions have several values so that the decision making process is not value free. The fourth assumption of administrative model is; “values are an integral part of decision making” (Hoy & Miskel, p.320).
Another model of decision making is incremental model. This model was introduced and formalized by Charles Lindblom in 1959. After that Braybrook and Cohen also contributes on it. When the situation and issues are complex, uncertain, and riddle with conflict then only the feasible approach to systematic decision making is incremental model. It is the method of deciding as the science of muddling through. Incremental approach is a method of successive limited comparison.
Mixed-scanning model as an adaptive strategy for decision making in educational organization is fourth approach which may evolved because having shortcoming on muddling through. What the mission and policy of the organization are, and what decisions will move the organization towards its mission and policy are two major concern of this approach in decision making processes. “Mixed scanning unites the rationalism and comprehensiveness of the administrative model with the flexibility and utility of the incremental model” (Hoy & Miskel, p. 332).Decision making is focused on broad ends and tentative means by this mixed-scanning model.
Individuals and organizations sometimes need ways of doing things for which there are no good reasons. Not always but occasionally people need to act before they think. In this situation the garbage can model as non-rational decision making is suitable. “The basic feature of the garbage can model is that the decision process does not begin with a problem and end with a solution; decisions are a product of independent streams of events in the organization” (Cohen et all. 1972).
However, Paul c. Nutt discuss on formulation process for decision making as “four types of formulation processes were identified (called idea, issue, objective-directed, and reframing) as well as the tactics decision makers apply to carry out each process type. Decision adoption, merit, and duration were used to determine the success of each process and tactic” on their research article.
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Factors Affecting in Decision Making
Decisions are may be taken by leadership or by all the stakeholders as per the nature of the issues or problems. But the process of decision making is affected by these Organizational personnel, Organizational functional & staff unit, and Organizational level component as an internal environment of an educational organization. Besides this there are other components can be seen in an organization as external environment are Customer, Supplier, Competitor, Socio-political condition, and technological component. Particularly in educational organization parents, parent teacher association, community, social organizations, and others educational organization etc are the external factors which may be affects the decision making process.
However, the effectiveness of decision and entire decision making process is depend upon the significance of decision, commitment of subordinate, leader’s expertise, support of subordinates for the team or organization’s objectives, member’s level of knowledge or expertise relative to the problem, and skill and commitment of group members to working together in the organization.
Decision Making Process
By the under mentioned graphical decision making cycle (figure 1) the leader of educational organization should follow the five different steps in continuum. Before taking decision the leader should identify the existing problem very well and then list out the possible alternatives to solve that problem. The third step is selection of most advantageous alternative from the list and implementation is the fourth. The cycle of decision making is not stops here. After the implementation of new decision seem certain outcomes; that will be taken into account by the leader as a decision maker. Applying this process of decision making the involvement of all concern people of educational organization like teachers, parents, and administrative personnel etc is highly expected. Another way making decision in educational organization may be as presented in (figure 2) below. Generally the leader should recognize the requirement of decision with diagnosis and analysis of causes of particular problem and situation.
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Current study and practice in decision making
The study on Controlling Decision-Making Practice in Organizations by Kathleen M. Sutcliffe and Gerry McNamara pointed on decision makers were more likely to use the prescribed practice when decisions were important, when the decision target was known, and when the decision maker was located in a larger subunit. Decision makers altered their decision practices in the short term, but in the long term they appeared to partially revert to their earlier practices. Reliance on prescribed practice fostered stability in decisions, but surprisingly appeared to negatively affect future judgments.
Their findings indicate that organizations can change the more micro aspects of decision making, but these changes may be transitory. Moreover the results suggest that decision makers may become satisfied when they rely on approved decision practices, an inclination that can have unto-ward consequences for the organizations in which they are set in. “How decisions are practices fostered in organizations and how are they linked to decision outcomes? We argue that decision-maker behavior is situated and is not simply a function of individual choice. Rather, in organizational settings decision-makers are subject to a hierarchy of influences that affect the decision processes they use and their resulting decision choice” (Sutcliffe & Namara, 2001).
Most of the educational leaders of Nepal say that the major stakeholders of educational organization as well as classroom leaders; are mostly silent in any kind of decision making process in the organization. They do not want to take part actively in decision making process. In this problematic situation Donna L. Ferrara and J. Theodore Repa (1993) suggested two instruments on their article which may help schools more accurately assess teacher involvement in decision making. The first tool is “Teacher Decision-making Instrument (TDI), a 68-item survey with eight categories of decision making: planning, policy, curriculum/instruction, pupil personnel, staff personnel, staff development, school/community, and budget/management. The TDI can be used for follow-up analyses and for comparisons between responses of teachers and administrators”(Ferrara &Repa, 1993).
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The second tool or instrument is “Shared Education Decisions Survey (SEDS) for use by those on decision-making councils at schools, including administrators, teachers, support staff, parents, community members, and school board members. SEDS contains 92 decisions within 10 categories, the 8 measured in the TDI, plus 2 new categories: parental involvement and plant management” (Ferrara &Repa, 1993).
As they claim on their article both of the instruments have demonstrated high reliability.
Conclusion
As stated earlier, there are so many models of decision making process in educational organization. A classical, administrative, incremental, mixed-scanning and garbage can models can be used in educational organization as per the requirements of time and situation of that organization. And the model should be rational and suitable for that particular case which will be decided by the leader of that organization.
Most of the models of taking decisions for solving the problems consist of four stages. Problem identification or perceive or understand the problem is the first stage as input; generate, evaluate and selection of the best solution is the second stage as process. Planning and implementation of selected alternatives is the third stage as output in decision making process in educational organization. In this way overall evaluation and modification of the entire process is the fourth stage as review of decision making process.
But the effectiveness of decision and entire decision making process is depend upon the significance of decision, commitment of subordinate, leader’s expertise and intuition, support from the subordinates for the team or organizational objectives, member’s level of knowledge or expertise relative to the problem, and skill and commitment of group members to working together in educational organization. The process of decision making must be participative, open and democratic in educational organization. •
References
Cohen,M.D.,March, J.G.,and Olsen,J.P.(1972).A garbage can model of organizational
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Ferrara, D.L.and Repa, J.T,(1993).Measuring shared decision
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Hoy, W.K.,Miskel, C. G.(2001) Educational administration: Theory, research, and
Practice. 6th ed. Mcgrawhill, Singapore.
Nutt, P.C. (1993).The formulation processes and tactics used in organizational
decision making.vol.4, no.2,Organizational science, Informs.
Robbins, Stephen P. (2002) Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 7th ed, New
Delhi, Prentice-Hall of India.
Sutcliffe, K.M. and Namara, G.M.,(2001).
Controlling Decision-Making Practice
in Organizations.vol.12, no.4, Organizational science, Informs.
1st July, 2010
KUSOED
