Assignment briefing: Evaluate the study of sociology from the enlightenment through to the writings of Durkheim, Marx and Weber.
In this essay I will explain the reasons behind the creation of social science and link it to the growth of scientific knowledge of the enlightenment, tracing the work of August Comte in developing the subject. I will also outline the key ideas of Durkheim relating to the collective conscience and his belief in scientific methods. I will outline Marx’s idea of social class conflict and his belief in scientific methods. I will also look at Weber’s idea of class, status and power and also his belief in action theory to our understanding of how society operates">social action theory. I will outline the key elements of functionalism, Marxism, social action and postmodern theories, using an example of a writer from each theory. I will also look at how the founding fathers theories informed the later sociological ideas, in doing so I will illustrate the differences and similarities, comparing and contrasting between the theories.
Sociology first developed in Europe in the nineteenth century when industrialisation resulted in massive social changes. During this time of social change there were also intellectual changes and advances in science; which resulted in science gaining a higher reputation than ever before as it appeared to be capable of producing objective knowledge that could be applied to solve human problems. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
The Essay on Social theories help
Social theories help us to understand the world and the society in which we live in and to interpret why people behave the way they do in the context of the existing social norms. In sociology, rational choice theory and the institutional paradigm aid us in exploring various social aspects in clear detail. The key difference between the rational choice theory and the institutional paradigm rests ...
Many early sociologists therefore chose to turn to science (using usually quantitative methods) for a methodology on which to base their subject, however not all agreed that adopting the methodology of the natural sciences is appropriate; these sociologists had the view that studying human behaviour is fundamentally different from studying the natural world and believed that unlike the subject matter of chemistry or physics, people possess consciousness which meant that sociology required a different type of methodology from science and they therefore supported the use of more qualitative or interpretive methods. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
In recent years the need for such rigid divisions between quantitative and qualitative methods have been questioned and some sociologists have advocated combining the two approaches, while others have advocated methods associated with critical social science or with postmodernism. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
Postmodernists tend to reject the claims of traditional quantitative, qualitative and critical researchers that it is possible to discover some objective truth about the social world and instead believe all that can be done is examine the world from the viewpoint of the different actors within it and to take apart existing explanations of society. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
The earliest attempt to use scientific, quantitative methods in sociology is known as positivism. The French writer Auguste Comte who was the first person to use the word ‘sociology’ and who coined the term ‘positive philosophy’ believed that society conformed to invariable laws in the same way that the physical world operates according to gravity and other the laws of nature; Comte was confident that scientific knowledge about society could be accumulated and used to improve human existence, so that society could be run rationally without religion or superstition getting in the way of progress. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008).
The Essay on Code Of Behaviour Religion Social Society
Religion in the modern age has been seen by some sociologists as being refreshing to the morals of society, while other sociologists feel that religion has for too long placed restrictions and limitations upon those who partake in it. Both functionalists and Marxists have identified that religion does have the main function of providing guidelines and restrictions to how someone should behave in ...
Comte believed that the scientific study of society should be confined to collecting information that can be objectively observed and classified and argued that sociologists should not be concerned with the internal meanings, motives, feelings and emotions of individuals since they cannot be measured in an objective way due to the fact that these mental states exist only in the person’s consciousness. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
Emile Durkheim agreed with Comte’s positivist view and believed sociologists should confine themselves to studying social facts; he argued ‘the first and most fundamental rule is: consider social facts as things’ (Durkheim, 1938, first published 1895).
Although he followed the logic and methods of positivism, Durkheim did not believe that social facts consisted only of things that could be directly measured or observed. To Durkheim social facts included phenomena such as belief systems, customs and institutions of society; he saw them as existing over and above individual consciousness, believing they were not chosen by individuals nor could they be changed at will. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
In Durkheim’s view society is not simply a collection of individuals each acting independently but instead viewed people to be directed by a collective conscience. Durkheim’s study of suicide is seen as a classic example of how detailed statistical analysis, involving the comparison of different societies, different groups within society and different time periods can be used to try to isolate the variables that cause a social phenomenon. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
In his study of Suicide (first published 1897), Durkheim collected statistical data to demonstrate that social factors figure in the apparently isolated act of destruction. In his study he showed some categories of people were more likely than others to take their own lives. Durkheim found that Protestants, males, wealthy people and the unmarried each had significantly higher suicide rates compared to Roman Catholics and Jews, women, the poor and married people. Durkheim concluded that these differences corresponded to people’s degree of social integration. (John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005), (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
The Research paper on Marx Believes That Society Social Individuals Durkheim
... is what composes society, Marx and Durkheim believe that possibly society is what forms the individual. Marx believes that the ... Marx views it as something which can be changed. BIBLIOGRAPHY Introduction to Sociology- Mike O'Donnell Sociology Themes and Perspectives- Haralambos and Holborn. ... necessary to prevent chaos. They also believe that social change occurs when it functionally necessary to do ...
Durkheim believed that social life was impossible without the shared values and moral beliefs that form the collective conscience and believed in their absence there would be no social order, control, solidarity or cooperation. Durkheim, who was the most influential of the early functionalists, saw the various parts of society as interrelated and combined to form a complete system. In the same way that a biologist would examine a single part of the body in terms of its contribution to the maintenance of the human organism, a functionalist will examine a part of society in terms of its contribution to the maintenance of the social system. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008) (John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005)
Durkheim saw crime for example as a vital function for the ongoing life of society itself and had the view that only by recognising and responding to acts as criminal, do people construct and defend morality; which gives necessary shape to our collective life. For this reason Durkheim concluded that crime is ‘normal’ as a society could not exist without it. (John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005)
In contrast, Marxism’s founder Karl Marx (1818- 1883) was the first sociologist to highlight the conflicts within society. The point of his work was to provide an understanding of the nature of capitalism in order that people could regain control of their lives. He stated: “The philosophers have only interpreted the world, the point however; is to change it.” (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
The comparative method has been widely used in sociology particularly by those advocating a ‘scientific’ quantitative approach to the subject. Karl Marx (1974, 1978, first published 1909) used this method to compare a variety of societies in order to develop his theory of social change and to support his claim that societies passed through different stages. (John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005)
The key to Marx’s thinking is the idea of social conflict; for Marx, the most significant form of social conflict involves the clashes between social classes that result from the way a society produces material goods. Marx observed the early stage of industrial capitalism in Europe and noted that this economic system transformed a small part of the population into capitalists (people who own the means of production).
The Term Paper on Marx, Weber, Durkheim
... an integrated necessary function of a well-balanced society. Weber Marx, Durkheim and Weber are responding to the social situation of the time and a shift ... as an agent in directing and controlling human behavior and actions. Efficiency would be paramount. Bureaucratic organizations would dominant and determine ...
He believed a capitalist’s goal is profit which results from selling a product for more than it costs to produce and suggested that capitalism transforms most of the population into industrial workers (the proletariat).
(John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005)
Marx believed an inevitable conflict between capitalists and workers is rooted in the productive process itself as capitalists minimize wages to maximise profits, and workers want wages to be as high as possible which results in an ongoing conflict since wages and profits come from the same pool of funds. Although Marx believed that with no personal ties to the oppressors, the proletariat had little reason to stand for its own enslavement, he realised that change would not come easy. (John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005).
He did however conclude that this conflict of interest between social groups must ultimately be resolved since a social system containing such contradictions cannot survive unchanged (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008); he believed Industrial workers would inevitably rise up to destroy capitalism and viewed socialism as a transitory stage on the path towards the ideal of a communist society that had abolished all class divisions. (John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005)
Structural perspectives and social action perspectives differ in the way they approach the analysis of society. Despite their differences both functionalism and Marxism use structural (or macro) perspectives as they analyse the way society as a whole fits together. The main difference between functionalist and Marxist perspectives is the ways in which they characterize the social structure. Functionalists stress the extent to which the different elements of the social structure fit together harmoniously where Marxists stress the lack of fit between the parts; particularly social classes and so emphasise the potential for social conflict. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
Max Weber (1864-1920), who is largely regarded as one of the three great founders of sociology with Marx and Durkheim (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008), agreed with the Marxist view that social stratification sparks social conflict but he considered Marx’s model of two classes to be too simple and viewed social stratification as a more complex interplay between three distinct dimensions; the first being economic inequality (a vital issue to Marx) which he termed class position. A second continuum was one Weber termed status, which measures social prestige, and finally Weber noted the importance of power as a third dimension of social hierarchy. (John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005)
The Term Paper on Social Change Society Conflict Class
Social life is what an individual goes through on an everyday basis. This includes how we socialize in society and interact with others. Social life is very important when dealing with social life. Many sociological theorists have offered information in an effort to fully understand society and how it works. Some of these theorists are some such as Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and Karl Marx. These ...
In contrast to Durkheim and Marx’s macro-level orientated perspectives, Max Weber – one founder of the social action perspective (a micro theory) – emphasises how human meanings and action shape society. Weber believed that ideas, especially beliefs and values, have transforming power and he emphasised the need to understand a setting from the point of view of the people in it. Unlike Marx, Weber saw modern society as not just the product of new technology and capitalism but of a new way of thinking. (John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005)
Weber challenged Durkheim’s view that society exists independently of the individuals who make up society. Social action theorists do not deny the existence of a social structure but see the structure as rising out of the action of individuals. Weber believed social action should be the focus of study in sociology and sociologists must interpret the meanings given to actions by the actors themselves. According to Weber understanding motives could be achieved through verstehen; imagining yourself to be in the position of the person whose behaviour you were seeking to explain. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
In Weber’s work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, one of his main concerns was to interpret the beliefs and motives of the early Calvinists, however he was not simply concerned with understanding meanings and motives for their own sake; he wanted to explain social action and social change. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
Comte, Durkheim, Marx and Weber shared a common interest in the social changes associated with industrialisation and all saw these changes as having shaped modernity. Comte and Weber especially saw such changes as involving the progressive triumph of scientific rationality. Comte believed the influence of religion, superstition and philosophy would be replaced by positivist science and Weber believed modern society would be increasingly shaped by rationalisation and bureaucracy, as effective and traditional actions became less important. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
The Term Paper on Working Class Society Marx Durkheim
INTRODUCTION Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim are some of the founding fathers in the Sociological discipline. Each developing the discipline in their respective area, contributed to the social science course becoming what it is today. Durkheim the man who coined the term social facts and some sociological theories on functionalism, division of labour in society, education and social solidarity, ...
Marx and Durkheim however put less emphasis on scientific and rational thinking but both believed strongly that society was developing progressively; according to Marx, towards a communist utopia; and in Durkheim’s case towards a complex society based upon organic solidarity. All of these classic nineteenth-century sociologists believed they had used scientific analysis to uncover the big story of human development and thought they could outline the future direction of social change. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008)
Although functionalism, conflict theory and action theory are still common practices within sociology, many others have emerged over the past two decades which stress differing voices and an anti-essentialism. Most prominently there has been the arrival of postmodern methodology. Postmodern theorists argue that the view of an absolute, scientific truth has now been discredited and truths are much more multiple, fluid and changing. (John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005)
Postmodernists believe the aims of Enlightenment thinkers such as Durkheim, Marx and Weber, have been abandoned in contemporary societies and suggest people no longer believe in the inevitability of progress and the power of science to solve all problems. (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008).
Their view is that people are more pessimistic about the future and are less willing to believe the truth can be found in grand theories or ideologies such as Marxism and Functionalism. There is now a wider variety of beliefs and people no longer believe that reason can conquer superstition, humans can be perfected or that communism can produce a perfect society. (John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer, 2005)
In conclusion it would appear there are a number of differences between functionalist, Marxist and social action perspectives and the type of method sociologists use is guided by the perspective that most influences their work. Marxist and Functionalists believe social structure should be studied where others such as Weber believe social action or both should be studied. Another difference is whether society is characterised more by conflict as Marxists believe, or consensus as is the functionalist view. Also it is questionable whether an objective study of society is possible as Durkheim, Marx and Weber believed, or whether it cannot be objectively studied as Postmodernists believe. It would appear that although functionalism, conflict theory and social action theory are still common practices, other perspectives have emerged which seem to be less concerned with issues to do with structural and social action perspectives, rejecting earlier claims that any single theory is able to explain the social world. It also seems that Durkheim, Marx and Weber’s belief in the inevitability of progress and the power of science to solve all problems to produce a perfect society has been abandoned and replaced with a more pessimistic view.
Bibliography
Haralambos & Holborn. (2008).
Sociology Themes and Perspectives, Seventh edition. London: Harper Collins.
John J. Macionis & Ken Plummer. (2005).
Sociology, A Global Introduction, Third edition. Essex: Prentice Hall.
Marshall, G. (1998).
Oxford Ditionary of Sociology. Great Britain: Oxford University Press.
