89
GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGE AND PAKISTAN’S
WATER-RESOURCES
Imtiaz Ahmed*
ABSTRACT
he rapid growth in the use of water in the
last half century has resulted in universal
awareness of the limited stocks of fresh
water and, in the light of the increasing
demands, the need for conservation. There is
also a realisation that international climatechange
may have some influence on the water
availability picture of the future.
Because of its geographical location, Pakistan
is mostly an arid and semiarid country.
However, it is fortunate to have 3 major rivers
(the Indus, Jhelum and the Chenab) flowing
from the bordering region to sustain irrigation
and hence agriculture. The use and
development of the potential of Indus River,
the major contributor (above 60%), has been
central to sustaining agriculture. The Indus is
basically a snow-fed river; because of global
warming, the extent of snow cover is rapidly
decreasing, and this may affect its base-flow.
A macro-scale hydrological model for riverflow
suggests that the runoff of the Indus will
decrease by 27% by the year 2050.
Pakistan’s population is increasing at a rate of
about 2.6% p.a. and the use and demand of
water is increasing faster. Additional demand
for water will come from the anticipated
The Essay on Indus River 2
World History India (Indus River) Source: Lake Mansarovar Length: 1,900 mi (3,060) km Coverage: Tibet, Ladakh, Zanskar Valley, and Pakistan Tributaries: Zanskar, Sutlej, Jhelum, Ravi, Beas, and Chenab It is a river of south-central Asia rising in southwest Xizang (Tibet) and flowing 3,060 km northwest through northern India and southwest through Pakistan to the Arabian Sea. In Pakistan the Indus ...
improvements in the standard of living,
through greater economic activity. Increase in
industrial activity will also require additional
water. Our underground water-resources are
already being exploited to the maximum.
Increase in sustainable water-resources in the
country can be achieved through a
combination of groundwater-aquifers and large
and small surface-water facilities. This
combination will be critical to meeting the
water needs of the twenty-first century.
Incorporating realistic scenarios of waterresources
is a fundamental element of
sustainable development. Water-resources
and climate change not only affect agriculture,
but they also affect urban centres, industry
and human health. Management of waterresources
requires a balanced and careful
review of current knowledge under a
comprehensive framework.
Introduction
he recent dry years, particularly in the
south of the country, and the resulting
water-crisis has raised our awareness of
the changing climatic conditions in the country
and in our region. It has also shown our
weakness in understanding and anticipating
climatic problems, especially when there is
little or no indication of it in our past
experience. Our behaviour, for the most part,
has been reactive rather than anticipatory. The
crisis cannot be addressed fully in the longterm,
without some understanding of the
dynamics and relationship between our waterresources,
the local weather, the regional
weather and the global climate change.
In this paper we will try to see if there is a
perceptible climatic change; if so, how will it
affect our present and future water-resources.
Before we move forward, it is necessary to
define the climatic region in which Pakistan is
situated. Pakistan is situated in the Near East
The Essay on Water Is An Increasingly Valuable Resource, But People Continue To Waste A Lot Of It
Question: Water is an increasingly valuable resource, but people continue to waste a lot of it. Some governments want to impose permanent water restrictions on domestic and agricultural use. Others feel we should put more effort into recycling water. Discuss these views and give your opinion. Although we have thought about the sustainability of the water for a long time, it remains many arguments ...
region. According to the FAO Regional Office,
the Near East extends from the Atlantic Ocean
(Mauritania and Morocco) in the west to
Pakistan and Kyrgyzstan in the east and from
Turkey and Kazakhstan in the north to
Somalia in the south1. It falls between
longitudes 17° west and 80° east and latitudes
43° north and 2° south. The Near East
comprises 29 countries, with a total area of
18.5 million km2, which is about 14% of the
total area of the world. Because of the aridity
prevailing in the region, the Near East is the
poorest region in the world, in terms of waterresources.
Irrigation covers 47.7 million
hectares in the region. Pakistan alone,
covering a little over 4% of the region,
accounts for 33% of the irrigated areas. By
adding Iran, Turkey, Iraq and Egypt, 72% of
the areas under irrigation are controlled by five
of the 29 countries, covering only 25% of the
Near East. Pakistan and Egypt are fortunate
countries because they have rivers flowing
from the bordering and more humid regions,
tropical Africa (the Nile) and Himalayan Asia
(the Indus).
Thus, Pakistan’s water-resources
are greatly influenced by climatic changes in
its region and also in the neighbouring regions.
T T
* Director to the Special Advisor to the Chief Executive of Pakistan, Chief Executive Secretariat No. 2, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Global Climatic Change and Pakistan’s Water-Resources
90
These water-resources are also affected by
climate changes in the world at large.
The question is; is there a significant change
in climate of Asia, in general, and near east, in
particular, to warrant such a concern?
Listed below are some of the facts that have
been making headlines in recent years in Asia:
1. Lhasa, Tibet: Warmest June on record,
1998. Temperatures hovered above 77
degrees Fahrenheit for 23 days.
2. Himalayas, India: Glacial retreat at record
pace. The Dokriani Barnak Glacier
The Essay on Landscape Features Region Temperature Affect
There are several factors that influence the growth and distribution of a particular regions primary industries. These primary industries, are necessary for an economy to grow. Without a primary industry, which could also be called natural resources, secondary, tertiary and quaternary industries would struggle in a country (excluding Japan etc. ). These factors also affect where people live. If ...
retreated 66 feet in 1998, despite a severe
winter. The Gangorti Glacier is retreating
98 feet per year. At this rate, scientists
predict the loss of all central and eastern
Himalayan glaciers by 2035.
3. Tien Shan Mountains, China: Glacial ice
reduced by one quarter in the past 40
years.
4. Middle East: Severe drought has affected
many parts, including Iran, Iraq and
Jordan. Rainfall in parts of Iran is down by
25% compared to 1999; eighteen of the
country’s twenty-eight provinces are
suffering.
In Iraq the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
have fallen to around 20% of their average
flow, with serious consequences for
irrigated farming. Jordan’s agricultural
production has been severely damaged by
two years of drought.
Most countries in Middle East are suffering the
consequences of prolonged water-shortages,
dating from last two years. The evidence listed
above shows that the recent dry years in
Pakistan were not individual events; the whole
Near East region is suffering. It is also implies
that whatever changes are taking place have
reasons beyond the immediate zone. Before
evidence of overall global change is
considered, it is important to understand that
to explain climate change it is important to
have:
a. A picture of what happened over the whole
earth, as against a single country, or
region, or hemisphere;
b. Weather-data from at least several years,
to allow temporal and geographic patterns
to be distinguished; and
c. A perspective that encompasses all
aspects of the weather.
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
The Global Temperature Increase
lobally, the 1990s were the warmest
decade and 1998 the warmest year in
the instrumental record, since 1861.
New analyses of proxy data for the Northern
Hemisphere indicate that the increase in
temperature in the 20th century is likely to
The Essay on The Sun Solar Flare
The Sun The sun is the largest object in the solar system. It is a middle-sized star and there are many other stars out in the universe just like it. Even though it is only a middle-sized star it is large enough to hold over 1 million Earth's inside if it were hollow. The temperature on the sun is far too much for any living thing to bear. On the surface it is 10, 000 degrees Fahrenheit and the ...
have been the largest of any century, during
the past 1,000 years. Because fewer data are
available, less is known about annual
averages prior to 1,000 years before the
present.
On the average, between 1950 and 19932,
nighttime daily minimum air temperatures over
land increased by about 0.2°C per decade.
This is twice the rate of increase in daytime
daily maximum air temperatures (0.1°C per
decade).
This has lengthened the freeze-free
season in many mid- and high latitude regions.
The increase in sea-surface temperature over
this period is about half that of the mean landsurface
air temperature. Arctic sea ice has
decreased since 1973, when satellite
measurements began. Since the start of the
satellite record in 1979, both satellite and
weather balloon measurements show that the
global average temperature of the lowest 8
kilometers of the atmosphere has changed by
+0.10°C ± 0.05 per decade, but the global
average surface temperature has increased by
+0.15 ± 0.05°C per decade. The record shows
a great deal of variability; for example, most of
the warming occurred during the 20th century,
during two periods, 1910 to 1945 and 1976 to
2000.
The Earth may have warmed by an average of
more than 1.7 degrees over the past 150
years, according to an analysis of the
University of Wisconsin study of the freezeand-
thaw records for lakes and rivers in the
Northern Hemisphere. Researchers found that
the annual freeze of 26 bodies of water in
North America, Asia and Europe shifted later
by about 8.7 days over the last century and a
half, while the spring ice break-up came an
average of about 9.8 days earlier. The study
found very strong evidence of a general
warming from 1845 to 1995 in areas where
there is ice cover. The change in the ice-on
and ice-off days found in the study
corresponds to an air temperature warming of
about 1.8oCdegrees over the150-year period.
G
Global Climatic Change and Pakistan’s Water-Resources
The Essay on How Has CMOS Memory Changed Over The Years?
CMOS really hasn’t changed very much from what I could find on the internet… Mainly the speeds have increased and the noise has been reduced it also went from analog to digital. Originally, the IBM PC only used of a small portion of CMOS memory and the balance of the 64 bytes were left undefined. Once other manufacturers cloned the AT form factor it wasn’t long that other areas of the CMOS was ...
91
Reasons For Global Temperature Increase
(i) Variation of Solar output
The Sun is the primary source of energy
responsible for governing both the weather
and the climate of Earth. For that reason, the
amount and type of energy the earth received
from the Sun could alter weather and climate
on the earth. Our Sun is not a constant star
and variations in the energy that the Earth
receives from the Sun, both in the form of total
electromagnetic radiation and other types of
energy, such as outflows of charged particles,
are well documented. The variations in solar
energy outflow are generally cyclic, with
periodic times ranging from the 27-day solar
rotation period, through the 11-year and 22-
year solar activity periods. Solar luminosity is
closely linked to sunspot activity, which waxes
and wanes over a cycle that lasts 10 to 11
years, Research shows that total solar
irradiance, or the total radiant power received
by the Earth from the sun, was about 0.036
percent higher in 1996 than in 1986.
Meteorological and climatic data suggest that
there are significant responses in the Earth’s
atmosphere and oceans to the variability of the
Sun, in the form of drought cycles, variations
in global sea-surface temperatures, etc., but
the direct relation of the Earth’s response to
solar variations cannot be proven.
The energy received from the sun (The solar
constant S) varies due to a number of
reasons; these include changes in the average
distance between the Earth and the Sun, the
tilt of the earth and precession. The
eccentricity expresses to what extent the
Earth’s orbit around the Sun differs from a
circle. The angle of tilt of the earth’s axis of
rotation varies between 22° and 24.5°, with a
periodicity of about 40,000 years. The
maximum change in energy received from the
sun S associated with variation in eccentricity
is about 0.1%. The eccentricity is just one of
three orbital parameters that influence
The Essay on Ozone Layer 2 Cfc Earth Climate
... dioxide helps control the temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind, ocean currents, and other variables of the Earth s climate. By putting carbon dioxide ... over the years. (HEF, pg. 1) Global climate change is expected because of an increase of levels of carbon dioxide and other ... than expected. On the other hand a climate change could make the precipitation increase. That would be a plus because it ...
seasonal and latitudinal changes in short-wave
radiation reaching the Earth. Precession is
another one; it is the change of direction in
space of the earth’s axis of rotation. The axis
changes direction with a periodicity of about
22,000 years
All the above-mentioned components of the
orbit vary because of the gravitational
attraction between the earth and the other
planets. The orbital changes are known as
Milankovich orbital changes3. He did put
forward the theory that the periodic changes of
climate between glacial and interglacial are
related to the orbital changes of the earth.
However they are only important for climate
changes on very long timescales. Hence,
when modelling for short time-scales, solar
constant (energy received from the sun) can
be handled as a true constant.
(ii) The Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is produced as certain
gases allow incoming solar radiation to pass
through the Earth’s atmosphere, but prevent
part of the outgoing infrared radiation from the
earth’s surface and lower atmosphere from
escaping into outer space. Greenhouse gases
include water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
halogenated fluorocarbons (HCFCs), ozone
(O3), perfluorinated carbons (PFCs), and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
Major sources of
greenhouse gases include the burning of fossil
fuels (gas, oil, and coal), forest destruction,
and agriculture. The average concentration of
CO2 was about 290 ppm (parts per million) in
pre-industrial times; in 1990 it was about 350
ppm and is increasing steadily at a rate of 0.3-
0.4%/yr. Since CO2 is chemically inert, the
photochemical or chemical processes in the
atmosphere do not destroy it; it is either lost by
transfer into the ocean or biosphere, or it
builds up in the atmosphere. The
concentration of methane, another
greenhouse gas, has more than doubled in the
same period.
To predict climate change, one must make a
model of the climate. One test of the validity of
predictions is the ability of the climatic models
to reproduce the climate, as we see it today.
Elements of the models, such as the physics
and chemistry of the processes that we know
or think we know, are essential to represent in
the models. Therefore, the models have to
embody the characteristics of the land and the
oceans that serve as boundaries of the
atmosphere represented in the models.
Models also have to take into account the
radiative characteristics of the gases that
make up the atmosphere, including the key
radiative gas, water vapour that is so variable
throughout the atmosphere.
A number of climatic models have been
developed and one of the most detailed is a
General Circulation Model (GCM) developed
by the Goddard Institute for Space Studies
(GISS).
A GCM uses extremely high-speed
computers to solve the basic equations
Global Climatic Change and Pakistan’s Water-Resources
92
governing atmospheric motions and processes
by numerical techniques. One test of the
model occurred in June 1991; the Mount
Pinatubo volcano erupted and sent 25 to 30
million tons of sulphur dioxide into the
stratosphere. There, the sulphur dioxide
reacted with water vapour to produce a longlasting
haze of sulphuric acid droplets. The
GISS group inserted the new information into
the model, estimated how much sunlight the
Pinatubo aerosol cloud would block, and
predicted that the global temperature would
drop about 0.3 degree Centigrade. The
predicted change actually occurred. Although
these successful climate predictions are
encouraging, most scientists agree that much
remains to be done to improve climate models
before we will be able to predict future climate
in a credible manner.
(iii) EL Niño and LA Niña
El Niño phenomenon is the result of persistent
higher Sea Surface Temperatures (SSTs) in
the central and eastern tropical Pacific; the
magnitude of the warming determines the
magnitude of El Niño. In 1997, Sea Surface
Temperatures recorded in some of these
tropical Pacific waters were more than 5oC (9o
F) higher than their average value. Records of
past climate reveal that El Niños have been a
recurring feature of the earth’s climate for
thousands of years; however they have now
become more persistent.
El Niños are often preceded or followed by the
opposite phase, dubbed La Niña, when
surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific
Ocean are systematically lower than the longterm
average. A corresponding modulation in
the general circulation of the global
atmosphere – called the Southern Oscillation –
is also closely allied with these ocean
changes. The name, which is widely used by
scientists to refer to the three together, is the
El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon, or
ENSO.
El Niño is the warm phase of ENSO, and La
Niña the cold. Both involve the tropical oceans
and the atmosphere, and the exchange of
energy between the ocean surface and the air
above it. The ocean and the atmosphere are
linked together, interactively, and each affects
the other. Atmospheric winds push the ocean
currents and help determine the patterns of
sea surface temperature. But Sea Surface
Temperatures, at the same time, help
determine the force and direction of winds and
atmospheric circulation, by adding heat or
taking it away, chiefly by shifting the places
where tropical thunderstorms preferentially
occur. The warmest large-scale pool of ocean
water in the world is normally found in the
vicinity of Indonesia – south of China and
north of Australia. El Niño shifts the location of
the warm water pool over 3200 km (2000
miles) eastward. When water vapour
condenses and falls as rain, the heat that was
stored when the water was originally
evaporated is released into the air. Because of
this, the major shift in the location of tropical
pacific rainfall that accompanies an El Niño
alters the heating patterns of the whole
atmosphere; their effects reach beyond the
tropics into mid-latitude regions. In the end,
winds and storm tracks and the jet stream are
all perturbed, in ways that affect, to some
degree, almost everyone on Earth.
When La Niña takes control, the situation
changes. Areas with drier than normal or even
drought conditions during El Niño, such as
Indonesia, the Philippines, Australia,
Southeast Asia, Hawaii, and parts of Africa,
Asia and Brazil, are apt to experience heavy
rains during La Niña. Meanwhile, areas that
have experienced El Niño floods, such as
Peru, Ecuador, Uruguay and northern
Argentina in South America, parts of Africa,
and southern parts of the U.S. in winter, are
apt to be drier than normal during the ensuing
La Niña phase. We know from past
occurrences that what might be called a “mini
global warming” accompanies each El Niño,
with the highest air temperatures typically
occurring a few months after the peak in
ocean surface warming. The record-breaking
and long-lasting El Niño of 1997-98 began in
April of the first year and persisted until May of
the next. It almost certainly contributed in
establishing 1998 as the world’s warmest year
on record. It is estimated to have cost a
staggering sum of $89 billion4. In addition to
material losses; these weather-related events
had taken an estimated 32,000 lives, while
displacing 300 million people. These estimates
do not include the losses incurred because of
the ensuing drought in Asia.
Changes in Climate Due to Temperature
Increase
(i) Effect on Rain Fall
Although the precipitation has increased by
0.5 to 1% per decade in the 20th century, over
most mid- and high latitudes of the Northern
Hemisphere continents, and the rainfall has
increased by 0.2 to 0.3% per decade over the
Global Climatic Change and Pakistan’s Water-Resources
93
tropical (10°N to 10°S) land areas, rainfall has
decreased over much of the Northern
Hemisphere sub-tropical (10°N to 30°N) land
areas during the 20th century by about 0.3%
per decade (this in the region in which most of
Pakistan is situated).
In contrast to the
Northern Hemisphere, no comparable
systematic changes have been detected in
broad latitudinal averages over the Southern
Hemisphere. There are insufficient data to
establish trends in precipitation over the
oceans.
In the mid- and high latitudes of the Northern
Hemisphere over the latter half of the 20th
century, there has been a 2 to 4% increase in
the frequency of events of heavy precipitation.
Increases in heavy precipitation events can
arise from a number of causes, e.g., changes
in atmospheric moisture, thunderstorm activity
and large-scale storm activity. In most areas,
there is an observed decrease in daily
temperature range. Since 1950, there has
been a reduction in the frequency of extreme
low temperatures, with a small increase in the
frequency of extreme high temperatures.
(ii) Snow Cover And Ice Extent
Satellite data show that there have been
decreases of about 10% in the extent of snow
cover since the late 1960s. Ground-based
observations show that there is very likely to
have been a reduction of about two weeks in
the annual duration of lake and river ice cover
in the mid- and high latitudes of the Northern
Hemisphere, over the 20th century. There has
been a widespread retreat of mountain
glaciers in non-polar regions during the 20th
century. Northern Hemisphere spring and
summer sea-ice extent has decreased by
about 10 to 15% since the 1950s. There has
been a decline in Arctic sea-ice thickness of
about 40% in recent decades and a
considerably slower decline in winter sea-ice
thickness.
It may be remembered that increase and
decrease in ice-cover does not depend on
winter temperature. It is the summer
temperature that determines the extent of ice
cover. If the summer is warm, all the
accumulated ice is melted and the ice cover
decreases or remains constant, however, if the
summer is mild, the previous season’s ice is
carried over to the next season and the ice
cover increases.
(iii) Sea Level Rise and Ocean Heat
Content:
Tide-gauge data show that global average
sea-level rose between 0.1 and 0.2 meters
during the 20th century. Global Ocean heatcontent
has increased since the late 1950s,
the period for which adequate observations of
sub-surface ocean temperatures have been
available. The average temperature of the
Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans has risen
0.06 degrees C since 1955.
EFFECT OF GLOBALWARMING ON
WATER-RESOURCES
lobal weather changes and waterresources
are deeply inter-related. The
largest source of freshwater is rain.
Global climatic changes will have major effects
on precipitation and runoff. In the relatively
arid and semi-arid regions, modest changes in
precipitation can have proportionally large
impacts on water supplies. In mountainous
watersheds, higher temperatures will increase
the ratio of rain to snow, accelerate the rate of
spring snowmelt, and shorten the overall
snowfall season, leading to more rapid, earlier,
and greater spring runoff. Because the
temperature projections of climate models are
less speculative than the projections of
precipitation, temperature-induced shifts in the
relative amounts of rain and snow and in the
timing of snowmelt in mountainous areas are
considered highly likely. Climate-induced
changes in hydrology will affect the magnitude,
frequency, and costs of extreme events, which
produce the greatest economic and social
costs to humans. Flooding could become more
common and extreme. Recent reports of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) suggest that a greenhouse warming is
likely to increase the number of intenseprecipitation
days as well as flood-frequencies
in northern latitudes and snowmelt-driven
basins. These reports also suggest that the
frequency and severity of droughts could
increase in some areas, as a result of a
decrease in total rainfall and more frequent dry
spells.
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING IN
THE ASIAN REGION
he Asian region that spans polar,
temperate, and tropical climates and is
home to over three billion people, is a
particular concern as far as effects of global
warming are concerned. As climate warms,
G
T
Global Climatic Change and Pakistan’s Water-Resources
94
many mountain glaciers may disappear and
the northern forests may shift further north. A
report by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) sponsored by UNEP predicts
that the major impacts in Temperate Asia
under global climate change are projected to
be: large shifts of the boreal forests, the
disappearance of significant portions of
mountain glaciers and shortages of water
supply. The most critical uncertainty in these
estimates stems from the lack of credible
projections of the hydrological cycle under
global climate change scenarios.
The effects of climate change on the Asian
monsoon and the El.Nino/Southren Osoillation
(ENSO) phenomenon are among the major
uncertainties in predicting the water picture in
the region. The positive ENSO phase of the
pattern (wet south and dry north) is promoted
by warm Sea Surface Temperatures in the
tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans. A rather
abrupt change in the El Niño – Southern
Oscillation behavior occurred around 1976/77
and the new regime has persisted. There have
been relatively more frequent El Niño
episodes, compared to La Niña. This behavior
is highly unusual in the last 140 years (the
period of instrumental record).
Although global temperature increase has
occurred over the last century, clear signs of
its effects appeared in the late 1970s, with the
more frequent appearance of El Niños. A
given explanation is that, although present, the
global warming influence was, until that time
insufficient to perturb the normal working of
the climate system: its capacity to affect the
overall behavior of the climate system was
reached only after a certain threshold had
been passed.
The major risk from the climate change in
south Asia is increased summer precipitation
intensity in temperate regions; this may
increase flash-flood prone areas. Of all natural
disasters, floods are the most destructive; in
terms of human life they account for over 50 %
fatalities (58% deaths were due to floods in the
decade 1988-1997).
In terms of economic
loss, they account for one third. On the other
hand, the arid and semi arid regions would be
drier in summer, which could lead to severe
droughts.
The Himalayas have a critical role in the
provision of water to continental monsoon in
Asia. Increased temperatures and increased
seasonal variability in precipitation are
expected to result in increased recession of
glaciers and increasing danger from glacial
lake outburst floods. A macro-scale
hydrological model for river-flow suggests that
the runoff of the Indus will decrease by 27% by
the year 20505. This implies that the
availability of fresh water in Pakistan is highly
venerable to climate change.
A reduction in average flow of snow-fed rivers,
coupled with an increase in peak flows and
sediment-yield would have major impacts on
hydropower generation and agriculture.
Availability of water from snow-fed rivers may
increase in the short term, but decrease in the
long-run. Runoff from rain-fed rivers may also
change in the future. A reduction in snowmelt
water will put the dry-season flow of these
rivers under more stress than is the case now,
especially in Pakistan where one major snowfed
river, the Indus, accounts for as much as
80 % of the normal water flow. Increased
population and increasing demand in the
agricultural, industrial and hydropower sectors
will put additional stress on water-resources.
RIVER-FLOW DATA OF PAKISTAN
ccording to the global warming scenario
presented earlier, the global warming
should be reflected in the river-flow data
of Pakistan, especially in the nineties. From
the data available form 1975 to 20006, the
following picture emerges. In the post-Tarbela
era, the water diverted from the rivers to the
canal system has remained constant around
104 MAF per year (128 bm3).
The fresh-water
outflow to the sea may, therefore, be
considered to be a good indication of the total
river flow for this period. From the year
1975/76-1989/90 the average flow into the sea
per year has been 34.13 MAF/year. However
from the year 1990/91 to 1999/2000, this flow
has been 47.88 MAF/year i.e. about 40 %
greater. (Table-1) For the winter season for
the same period, the average flow into the sea
from the year 1975/76-1989/90 was 1.86
MAF/year. However from the year 1990/91 to
1999/2000, this flow has been 3.28 MAF/year,
i.e. about 76 % greater. Although other factors
may also be contributing, nevertheless the
change visible in this time-frame is quite large.
This increased river-flow could be taken as
evidence for local effect of global warming.
The global warming is expected to initially
cause the river-flow to increase as the glaciers
melt, then decrease as they recede. One more
fact that emerges from the data listed in table-
1 is that when there is an excessive amount of
water in kharif season, the succeeding rabi
season also has more water than usual; this
A
Global Climatic Change and Pakistan’s Water-Resources
95
increased water-availability in rabi could be
due to increased rains because of local effect
of greater moisture.
Table – 1: Fresh-Water Outflow to the Sea
Year Kharif Rabi Total
1975-76 37.8 1.5 39.3
1976-77 64.1 5.0 69.1
1977-78 29.0 1.4 30.4
1978-79 75.0 5.6 80.6
1979-80 29.4 0.4 29.8
1980-81 18.7 1.4 20.1
1981-82 35.5 0.3 35.8
1982-83 9.4 0.3 9.7
1983-85 43.5 2.1 45.6
1984-85 25.1 0.9 26.0
1985-86 10.9 0.0 10.9
1986-87 26.7 0.2 26.9
1987-88 17.5 0.1 17.6
1988-89 44.2 8.7 52.9
1989-90 16.9 0.4 17.3
Average flow till
1990 34.13 1.86 34.13
1990-91 38.2 4.1 42.3
1991-92 50.1 3.2 53.3
1992-93 69.2 12.3 81.5
1993-94 28.5 0.6 29.1
1994-95 88.2 3.7 91.9
1995-96 44.8 1.6 46.4
1996-97 61.1 0.7 61.8
1997-98 16.6 3.8 20.4
1998-99 32.6 0.1 35.3
1999-00 8.7 0.1 8.8
Average for the
90’s 47.88 3.28 47.88
Overall Average for 25 years 39.3
Variation of Rainfall Between 1931-90
An overall increase in rainfall of 50-150mm7
has been observed in the monsoon belt for the
period 1931-90. However, a decrease in
rainfall was seen in the rest of the country. The
decrease is 50-100 mm in western and
northern mountains, whereas in the
southeastern and central parts it is 25-50 mm.
These variations are in line with the
predictions made on the expected effects of
global warming. Global warming is expected to
cause drier south and wetter north.
Changes in El.Nino/Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) also affect Asia, especially the
monsoon. Based on the monsoon rainfall
pattern from 1901 to 90, a strong El Niño
event causes poor or below normal rainfall in
Pakistan. However, when a strong El Niño
year is followed by another strong El Niño
year, the rains return to normal or above
average. When a strong El Niño is followed by
a moderate El Niño in the succeeding year,
the monsoon activity is reduced. Most of the
floods in Pakistan were recorded in the La
Niña years (Appendix-1).
The predominance
of El Niño in recent years may be one of the
causes of the recent dry years.
Identifying the Crisis Facing Pakistan
The persistent failure of rains in recent years
has lead to persistence of droughts in most of
the country. Droughts in one country or region
also effects neighbouring regions that
otherwise are supposed to make surplus water
available for inter-basin transfers in the flood
seasons. Increase in persistency of drought
requires a re-examination of our assumptions,
operating norms and contingency measures
for existing and planned water-management
measures. Droughts produce the additional
burden of migration of population from
Global Climatic Change and Pakistan’s Water-Resources
96
neighbouring regions into lands that are
already stretched to the maximum. Besides
the social disruptions, there is the cost of the
degradation of the natural resources due to
the over-exploitation.
A United Nations report in 1997 determined
each member country’s ratio of waterconsumption
to water-availability, in order to
gauge the overall pressure on its waterresources.
The report predicts that moderate
to high water-stress translates to consumptionlevels
that exceed 20 per cent of available
supply. In Pakistan, this ratio has already
exceeded 65 percent! Water-use in agriculture
is projected to increase as our food-demand
rises. World-wide, agriculture accounts for
about 70 per cent of water-consumption; in
Pakistan, its share is already 95%. Future
projects show a 50- to 100-percent increase in
demands for irrigation water by 2020.
Better management of water-resources is the
key to mitigating water-scarcities in the future
in the short-term, and avoiding further damage
to aquatic ecosystems. More efficient use of
water could dramatically expand the available
resources. In the longer term, however, the
looming water-crises must be addressed
through hard policy-decisions that reallocate
water to the most economically and socially
beneficial uses. Far greater emphasis on
water-efficient technologies and control of
pollution is also essential. In Pakistan, about
50 per cent of irrigation-water never reaches
the crop and is lost to evaporation or runoffs.
However, even with measures to contain the
growth of demand and use of water more
efficiently, new supplies will be needed. The
financial and environmental costs of tapping
new supplies will be, on average, two or three
times those of existing investments, because
most of the low-cost, accessible water
reserves have mostly been exploited.
If the problems facing Pakistan, with respect to
water, were to be short-listed’ they would
constitute the following main points:
a. Resource deficit
b. Depletion of aquifers, by lowering of watertables;
c. Wastages, in the form of runoffs;
d. Climate change;
e. Wasteful agricultural practices;
f. Water-logging and salinity;
g. Low level of awareness to importance of
fresh water;
h. Water shortages in the urban areas.
Any water policy that fails to address these
concerns will be piecemeal and, in the end,
may aggravate the situation.
Future development in Pakistan may be
severely constrained, because we have
neither the extra water nor the financial
resources to shift development away from
intensive irrigation and into other sectors
that would create employment and
generate income to import food. The
present water-scarcity gives an idea of the
future vulnerability of Pakistan to absolute
a water-scarcity. Under all scenarios,
including the most optimistic, there is a
dearth of fresh water. Climate change, as
a result of global warming will further
constrain our resources.
This thirst for water necessitates broad
thinking and drawing up a research
agenda that would address these
concerns and would contribute towards
agricultural productivity, sustainable use of
groundwater, introduction of modern
technology to expand resources, and
making our agriculture more productive
with less water.
The IPCC third assessment on climate
change, published in July 2001, states that
global warming is happening, and at a
much faster rate than was expected,
global temperatures are rising nearly twice
as fast as previously thought. Their
prediction, based on computer models, is
that temperatures could rise by as much
as 5.8oC by the end of the century. The
report stresses that human activity is
responsible for this crisis and that
industrial pollution, and, in particular,
green-house gases emissions are the
worst offenders.
Conclusion
n conclusion, it is generally thought that
Climate change is a very slow process and
the Earth has always been a temperate
world. This is far from the case. The Earth has
been much hotter and much colder than it is
now; actually the past eight thousand years
have been a period of unusually stable
climate. The current atmosphere that blankets
the planet helps to keep the globally averaged
surface temperature up to about 15 degrees
Celsius. But there is geological evidence that
this figure has been down to about 7oC and
possibly as high as 27oC8. Although we are
I
Global Climatic Change and Pakistan’s Water-Resources
97
currently in a not-so-cold phase of an ice age,
“the Quaternary Ice Age”, there is evidence
from Arctic ice and palaeontological studies
that the earth has heated up to as much as
12oC in a span of less than a hundred years a
number of times in the past.
References
1. FAO Regional Office for Near East 1996;
2. The Third Assessment Report of Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), 2001;
3. The Atmosphere; an introduction to meteorology by F.K. Lutgen and J Tarbuck;
4. KEVIN E.TRENBERTH, CONSEQUENCES vol 5 no 1 1999, pp. 3-15;
5. Climate Change 2001, Impact, Adaptation and Vulnerability; Contribution of Group II third of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2001; pp. 563;
6. Strategy for Development, Conservation and Utilization of Water-Resources of Pakistan,
Report prepared by PCRWR, MoS&T, FFC, MoW&P, MoA&L, PMD and MoD. Page 14;
7. Study on Climate Change Impact & Adaptation Strategies for Pakistan 1998 Annex I page 9;
8. Jonathan Amos, BBC News Online’s, August 2001.
Global Climatic Change and Pakistan’s Water-Resources
98
APPENDIX-1
La Niña (Cold) and El Niño (Warm) Episodes By Years.
The following published list of cold (La Niña) and warm (El Niño) episodes provides a season-byseason
breakdown of conditions in the tropical Pacific. Intensity is classified for each event by focusing
on a key region of the tropical Pacific (along the equator from 150°W to the date line).
The process of
classification is based on using reanalysed sea surface temperature analyses produced at the National
Centers for Environmental Prediction/ Climate Prediction Center and at the United Kingdom
Meteorological Office. In the following table, weak periods are designated as C- or W-, moderate
strength periods as C or W, and strong periods as W+ or C+. A column has been added to the
published list to identify flood or high flow years in Pakistan to establish a relationship with these
events.
We should note that heavy rainfall is but one of several factors that determine whether or not a flood
occurs. The spatial extent of the storm, the total amount of rain, and the rainfall rate are also important,
as are the nature and condition of the terrain on which it falls. Geophysical, topographical and
vegetation conditions are all involved. Because of these factors, flood records in themselves are not
reliable indicators of changes in rainfall.
YEAR JFM AMJ JAS OND
1950 C C C C Floods
1951 C W-
1952
1953 W- W-
1954 C- C
1955 C C- C- C+ Floods
1956 C C C C- Floods
1957 W- W- W
1958 W+ W W W
1959 W-
1960
1961
1962
1963 W- W
1964 C- C
1965 C- W W+
1966 W W- W-
1967
1968 W-
1969 W W- W- W-
1970 W- C
1971 C C- C- C-
1972 W- W W+
1973 W C- C+ Floods
1974 C+ C C- C-
1975 C- C- C C+ High discharge
1976 C W- Floods
1977 W-
1978 W- Floods
1979
1980 W-
1981 High discharge
1982 W- W W+
1983 W+ W C- High discharge
1984 C- C-
1985 C- CContinue….
Global Climatic Change and Pakistan’s Water-Resources
99
Continued from previous page
1986 W- W
1987 W W W+ W
1988 W C C+ Floods
1989 C+ C
1990 W- W-
1991 W- W- W W High discharge
1992 W+ W+ W- W- Floods
1993 W W W W
1994 W W Floods
1995 W C- High discharge
1996 C- High discharge
1997 W W+ W+
1998 W+ W C C
1999 C+ C C C
2000 C C- C
