Introduction to the Arab League
“The purpose of the League is to draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate their political activities with the aim of realizing a close collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries.”
So reads the founding pact of the Arab League(formally known as the League of Arab States), signed in 1945 by the seven founding states: Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, North Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Transjordan. Since then, the League has expanded to include 22 member states united in the goal of ensuring peace, prosperity and security in the region.
In spite of the Arab League’s goal of unity between the Arab nations, the organisation’s effectiveness has been hampered by divisions between its members. Member States have often been on opposing sides of important conflicts, such as the Cold War and the wars in Iraq.
The original impetus behind the League’s formation was the desire of the British to rally the Arab nations against the Axis powers.However, it was not until the final months of the Second World War that the League was formed. Instead, the League’s creation was an expression of pan-Arab ideals and the desire to give a greater voice to the Arab peoples.
In its early years, the Arab League ratified important treaties,including a cultural treaty and a Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation Treaty. However, very few practical steps have been taken to implement the treaties, particularly in the military arena(despite attempts to revive this in 20073).
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As Sayed Eliwa, political science professor of the Egyptian Helwan University, says, “Many Arabs are getting much more disappointed that a host of resolutions and statements could not be translated into actions.” Qatar’s foreign minister Sheikh Hammad bin Jassem complained, “[the Arab League’s] meetings are ceremonial and we don’t have a defined target.”
Indeed, such was the dissatisfaction with the organization’s that in 2002 Libya threatened to leave the League, and Qatar seemed likely to follow suit. Although neither country ultimately decided to leave, their threats were indicative of problems with the organization.
Structure of the League
The League’s highest body is the Council, which has one representative from each of the member states, each of which has a single vote. There are further committees and subcommittees, which come under the six Main areas which were laid out in the founding document: economics, communications, culture, nationality, social welfare and health.
The League is headed by the Secretary-General and Secretariat, which fulfils a similar function to that of the United Nations. All Secretaries-General have been Egyptian, except for the period of Egypt’s expulsion (1979-1989)
Member states and their date of joining
Egypt (1945), Iraq (1945), Lebanon (1945), North Yemen (1945), Saudi Arabia (1945), Syria (1945), Transjordan (1945), Libya (1953), Sudan(1956), Morocco (1958), Tunisia (1958), Kuwait (1961), Algeria (1961), South Yemen (1967), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971), UAE (1971), Bahrain(1971), Mauritania (1973), Somalia (1974), PLO (1974), Djibouti (1977), Unified Yemen (1990) and Comoros (1993).
Timeline of key events in the Arab League’s
History:
1945 – Arab League Pact signed by founding members.
1946 – Cultural Treaty signed.
1950 – Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation Treaty signed.
1953 – Economic and Social Council formed.
1964 – The first summit is convened in Cairo in January.
1976 – Arab League summit in Cairo authorises the formation and deployment of an Arab peacekeeping force in Lebanon.
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1979 – Egypt is suspended from the Arab League as a consequence of Egypt’s peace agreement with Israel.
1987 – Arab League extraordinary summit endorses a statement supporting Iraq in the on-going Iran-Iraq war.
1989 – Egypt is readmitted into the Arab League; the league’s headquarters are moved back to Cairo.
1990 May – Summit meeting in Baghdad criticises Western efforts to prevent Iraq from developing advanced weapons technology.
1990 August – At emergency summit, 12 out of 20 states present condemn the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.
1998 – Arab League head condemns use or threat of force against Iraq; League denounces bomb attacks against US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania and US missile strikes against Afghanistan and Sudan.
2002 League offers Israel normal relations with Arab world in return for a pullback to its 1967 borders.
2003 League is divided over US-led overthrow of Saddam Hussein.
2005 January – Free trade zone between 17 Arab League countries comes into force.
2005 March – decides to re-launch 2002 initiative offering Israel normal relations in return for a pullback to its 1967 borders.
2011 January – Secretary-General warns region’s leaders that problems that sparked unrest in Tunisia are common to all Arab states.
2011 February – Arab League bars Libya from meetings after hundreds are killed during an anti-government uprising.
2011 March – Arab League backs UN resolution authorising attacks on Libyan air defences.
2011 May – Arab League supports the appeal to the UN asking that Palestine become a “fully-fledged state” and UN member within the 1967 ceasefire line and with East Jerusalem as its capital.
2011 August – Arab League condemns Syrian government repression of nationwide uprisings.
2011 August – Libya is readmitted to the League, with its seat given to a representative from the National Transitional Council.
military cooperation –
Introduction
Military Cooperation amongst Arab League members has always been an issue in an organisation that has hugely divergent positions and capabilities.
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The Arab League. The Arab League is a regional organization that was founded on March 22, 1945. The league's function is to promote political cooperation among it's member states, and to deal with disputes or any breaches of peace in the region. The league's official name is the League of Arab States. The founding members of the league are: Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Jordan, and Yemen. ...
However, in a similar vein to the African Union, the Arab League has attempted to formalise its military element:
• A joint memorandum was issued in 2010 between the Arab League and African Union to agree to attempt joint peacekeeping exercises.
• Arab League members have previously participated in multiple conflicts, with a specific focus on counter-acting the military power of Israel, and more recently Iran
• The Arab League’s combined manpower exceeds 125 million, giving it one of the largest pools of manpower available globally
• However, the Arab League does not have a structured defence command like NATO’s.
• Greater military cooperation would allow League members to deploy peacekeeping forces to areas such as Yemen or Sudan in a similar manner to that of the African Union
History
The Arab League’s Military Past
Iraqi Military Recruits
The formation of the League and its initial military complex, the Joint Arab Command and the subsequent conflicts it became involved in exposed one of its glaring weaknesses: a lack of organised command structure. Israel responded to this by attempting to deal with the aggressors when they were divided and could not collaborate.
The Arab League also displays one of the major issues in regional organisations: diverging levels of interest in the issue and differing approaches in how to tackle it. Many of the member states are not as forthcoming in military contributions, due to smaller populations/military budgets, a problem similarly faced by NATO. As such, the major states, Egypt and Saudi Arabia, are currently in the best position to offer military resources.
In recent years the Arab League has attempted to rectify more of these issues, and has been looking at the model of the African Union in order to improve its military capacity as a group. However, the recent events in Libya and the Arab Spring in general have demonstrated many of the aforementioned issues. Of the states that offered military assistance in the implementation of UN resolution 1973, they have all operated in conjunction with NATO forces.
Timeline of the Arab League’s Military Efforts
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1948: First Arab-Israeli Conflict exposes weaknesses in Arab military forces
1950: Joint Arab Security Pact signed, creating the foundations of a collective security agreement
1961: Joint Arab Command (JAC) proposed by the Arab League’s Joint Defence Council
1964: JAC superseded by the United Arab Command (UAC)
1966-67: UAC is, through its lack of utility during the Six-Day War and Samu Incident, effectively made redundant
1980-1988: Iran-Iraq War, in which Syria alone supports Iran, while all other Arab League states support Iraq
1990-1991: Nine Arab League states assist in the First Gulf War in a coalition
2011: Multiple Arab League members support NATO-led efforts in Libya, although many choose not to commit fighting forces.
Discussion of the Problem
The Arab League’s members are situated in one of the most politically volatile areas of the world, which has recently seen a great deal of
upheaval. Issues such as piracy, terrorism and civil war have occurred in and around the Middle East and many of these issues require nations to cooperate, especially militarily, to solve them. The elimination of piracy, for example, requires a multi-faceted approach to be taken. The European Union task force off Somalia has had some success in preventing
attacks and the Arab League should be able to operate in a similar fashion.
NATO needed Arab support of its intervention in Libya when it imposed a no-fly zone to establish its legitimacy to intervene in the region, but Arab League leaders later expressed reservations about the mission.The intervention would have been seen to have had more legitimacy had it been carried out by an Arab supranational military structure, rather than pursued by Western nations. (Of course, many Arab League nations were facing unrest at home, and so in this case would not want to commit troops to foreign adventures.)
Similarly, the legitimacy of Western interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq would have been weaker if a large regional military power, which had clear jurisdiction over those areas, was able to assert itself. The divisions between nations about the correct approach to dealing with the Iraq war made it difficult for the Arab League even to agree on the purpose of a peace mission to Washington and Baghdad, let alone establish enough consensus to take any military action.
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Purpose of the organisation
Arab League nations have to be very clear on the purpose and scope of action of a military agreement. For example, NATO was founded as a mutual defence organisation to counter the threat posed by the Soviet Union and, subsequently, its Warsaw Pact allies. Since, the fall of the Berlin Wall, it has looked for a new purpose around which to define itself, and its purpose has not always been clear.
There are different approaches that could be taken to this. Firstly, a mutual defence agreement, where an attack on one is defined as an attack on all, would bind the nations together as one group with combined mutual
defence interests. However, without a specific enemy which poses a threat to all the Arab League nations (in the way that the Soviet Union was perceived as a threat to all NATO countries), it is unlikely that all the nations will see this as a sufficiently significant reason to bind them together in an expensive obligation.
Alternatively, the bloc could define its purpose as a tool for intervening in failed states, or countries where civil conflict is precipitating a humanitarian crisis, or the threat of further instability in the region. This would increase the influence of the Arab nations in the region, and allow Arabs to have a greater role in setting the agenda in world affairs. The effectiveness of this approach depends on agreement between participating nations, and there would have to be clear guidelines on the type of crises that would legitimise this kind of intervention. Many nations are wary of approving such motions in principle, for fear that other countries will intervene in their own internal affairs. If, as the 2010 memorandum suggests, such missions were limited in scope to peacekeeping, then this might be more palatable to members.
Political obstacles
Although some of the member states, such as Saudi Arabia, are strongly in favour of military cooperation, on the basis that a stronger Arab League is more able to counter the influence of Iran or other external threats, other states are less keen. In order for this to be passed there should be agreement between all the member states. The reticence exhibited by many of the Arab League states in being involved in the Libya campaign is a sign that this could be difficult to establish.
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The Arab Spring will change the way that Arab nations think about many problems, and the military question is certainly one of them. It is not clear whether the new governments will be able to find more common ground that the previous regimes or whether the differences across the region will be too great to form an effective unified military organisation.
Perhaps the lack of agreement over international affairs makes the establishment of a permanent military command structure pointless.
Instead, the Arab League could develop a model under which an organisation would be established as and when such a command is required by the circumstances. This has the advantage of not having a structure which depends on nations which may decide it does not want to participate in a given action, and would be built around only those who have agreed to take part.
However, such a case-by-case approach would hinder the League’s ability to respond quickly to rapidly developing situations, and time would be lost in the initial phase of organising chain of command. The permanent nature of an international military command of organisations such as NATO means it can be in action quickly whenever it is necessary to take action. Further, this ad hoc approach erodes the status of the military organisation as acting for a League that is speaking with one voice.
The Future
Models for Arab League Military Cooperation
The section below covers some of the examples of international efforts to bring together military forces to tackle greater threats. It would be constructive to examine not only the examples provided but also to examine other blocs of military cooperation, especially looking at their structure and member contributions.
NATO
Unlike the other two models to consider, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), is a formalised military unit, with a joint command structure and guidelines for membership. NATO’s 28 member states agree to collectively defend each other in North America and Europe in Article V of the Washington Agreement. There is also a commitment by each nation to spend 2% of their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on defence. This is designed to ensure NATO members are able to contribute actively to missions, although currently many of the EU, all those barring France, the UK and Greece fail to meet this target.
The recent conflict in Libya highlighted some of NATO’s flaws: without the level of assistance usually provided by the USA, many members were having issues with munitions and France’s defence minister has expressed concerns that their aircraft carrier will be out of action for almost a year for maintenance following the conflict.
However, even in view of this, NATO has actively contributed to peacekeeping efforts in Libya, Iraq (during the Gulf War), Bosnia amongst others. The joint command structure allows the members to contribute troop, despite their deployment capabilities.
African Union
The African Union has been examined the most closely by the Arab League as a possible model for implementation. The African Union has deployed peacekeeping troops to Sudan and Somalia in an attempt to prevent further conflict.
The African Union has no joint command structure and instead utilises its Peace and Security Council to discuss peacekeeping activity, much like the UN’s Security Council. Deployments are then made up of member states most willing and able to contribute.
Shanghai Cooperation Organization
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization is an intergovernmental cooperation agreement between China, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Although they do not possess a joint military structure, the group conducts joint military exercises and intelligence sharing. Of the three models, this is the most informal, with no joint defence treaty and little in the way of cooperation in military actions.
Rebuilding Societies
The Arab Spring has sent shockwaves throughout the world, and challenged conventional views on the political frameworks that Arab peoples can and want to be governed by. This wave of popular uprisings has necessitated the re-evaluation of the relationship between the governments of each Arab nation and the citizens under them. This topic aims to prompt discussion on how the Arab League should respond to the new political and economic environment, and how the League can support the rebuilding efforts of its members as the dust begins to settle.
The Arab Spring, as it has come to be known, has its roots in a long standing tension between the ruling parties of each nation, and their people. Bribery and corruption are taken as an unavoidable part of both politics and business, while more recent rises in food and energy prices have been matched by increased unemployment rates. The global financial crisis in 2008 only sharpened these problems.
The catalyst that allowed the uprisings to happen was largely due to changing demographics and globalization. Past generations of Arabs saw their countries passed from hand to hand, fighting colonial influences and settling instead for a nationalist dictator. The present generation of Arabs is young and educated, with majority of the population in the region aged less than 30. They have not known any other leader, but thanks to mass communication and the spread of democracy, they had the knowledge and ability to organize their collective frustration into a wave of revolutions.
As with every revolution in history, change has come with a price. Beginning with Mohamed Bouazizi’s desperate self-immolation, estimates of the death toll across the region sit around 24,000 with this figurerising each day. Damage to property is similarly great, particularly in the wake of the military intervention in Libya. Lastly there is the issue of both internally displaced refugees, and those who have fled farther, to bordering states, Europe, and North America. Estimates from the UN indicate more than a million have fled from Libya alone, often to countries which are similarly unstable.
Topic History
Timeline
17/12/10
Mohamed Bouazizi sets himself on fire in Tunisia, sparking protests in Sidi Bouzid two days later and beginning the Arab Spring
29/12/10
Tunisian President Zine el Abidine Ben Ali promises jobs but also vows to punish protestors. Nonetheless protests continue,and in neighbouring Algeria taxes on staple foods are slashed by 41%.17
05/01/11
Riots break out in Algeria over food prices and unemployment, with inflation around 4% and unemployment near 25%.18
12/01/11
PM Saad Hariri is ousted from power in Lebanon as his cabinet collapses following tensions over the Special Tribunal for Lebanon which was expected to indict Hezbollah members in the assassination of former
PM Rafik Hariri.
14/01/11
President Ben Ali flees to Saudi Arabia via Malta. In Libya, President Muammar Gadhafi condemns the events in Tunisia, whilst unrest is beginning in his own state.
23/01/11
Rioting occurs in Sana’a, Yemen following the arrest of Tawakul Karman, a prominent female activist who had called for President Ali Abdullah Saleh to step down. Yemen suffers from extreme poverty, corruption, lack
of political freedom, and diminishing oil and water reserves.
25/01/11
Thousands protest in the first organised rallies in Cairo and the rest of Egypt against President Hosni Mubarak. In the following days internet and mobile communications are shut down, a curfew enforced, and militarypresence increased.
Similar protests are seen in Lebanon against the likely appointment of Hezbollah-backed Najib Mikati as PM as this would signal increased Syrian involvement again in the country.
27/01/11
Thousands protest in the streets of Sana’a, Yemen against President Ali Abdullah Saleh’s 32-year reign. Egyptian opposition leader Mohamed ElBaradei returns to Egypt to join the protests.
28/01/11
Protests continue in Egypt in Suez and Alexandria. President Mubarak dismisses his cabinet and appoints the first Vice President in 30 years, Omar Suleiman, but refuses to end emergency laws. The army continues to
refuse to fire live ammunition on protestors.
01/02/11
President Mubarak pledges to step down at the end of his term in September but protestors are not mollified. The next day pro-Mubarak attack the crowds in Tahrir Square, some likely having been paid by the
regime.
04/02/11
Thousands gather in Tahrir Square to again press for an end to Mubarak’s rule in a “Day of Departure.”
11/02/11
The “Friday of Departure.” President Mubarak steps down and hands power to the military. Celebrations erupt across the country.
14/2/11
Uprisings occur in Iran and Bahrain, as well as continued violent
protests in Yemen. The Palestinian PM, Salam Fayyad, dismissed his
cabinet in an attempt to satisfy calls for reform there. In Egypt the military dissolves the parliament and suspends the constitution,declaring hold power for six months or until elections could be held, whichever came first.
16/02/11
Protests erupt in Benghazi, Libya following the arrest of a human rights campaigner, while pro-government rallies take place in the capital, Tripoli. A media blackout is imposed in the following days as protests break out in other cities. Opposition groups use Facebook, Twitter and other social media networks to organise, and send out reports and images of demonstrations.
22/02/11
Muammar Gadhafi makes a broadcast on state TV urging his loyalists to take to the streets and vowing to die as a martyr. Civilians are being fired upon with machine guns and aircraft. Libyan diplomats around the world quit in protest and the Arab League suspends Libya’s membership.
23/02/11
Benghazi is taken by the rebels! The first deaths occur in the protests in Yemen.
25/02/11
Day of Rage. In Iraq violent protests occur in Mosul, Hawija and Basra over unemployment, power cuts and lack of education and health services. Demonstrations continue in Yemen, Egypt and Tunisia. The population in the latter sees the replacement PM, Mohamed Gannouchi as an ally of former president Ben Ali. Protests begin in Jordan, with 5,000 gathering in the capital of Amman. Bahrain is also wracked by demonstrations by thousands of people for democratic change.
In Libya, the rebels have control of Yefren, Zenten and Jadu (all SW of Tripoli), and are demonstrating within Tripoli itself whilst military commanders and some key ministers are beginning to turn against Gadhafi.
Fighting is also occurring in al-Zawiya and Misurata.
27/02/11
Mohamed Gannouchi resigns from his position as Prime Minister of Tunisia. The interim president, Fouad Mebazaa, names the former government minister Beji Caid-Essebsi as Ghannouchi’s replacement.
A National Transitional Council is created in Benghazi, Libya to act as the political face of the uprising. Brega, Zawiya and Misrata are under rebel control but repelling attacks from regime forces.
01/03/11
Libya is suspended from the UN HRC.
05/03/11
The Libyan National Transitional Council declares itself “the sole representative of all Libya.”
6-16/03/11
Muammar Gadhafi’s forces strike back, retaking Zawiya, Ra’s Lanuf, Brega, and Ajdabiya, using airstrikes to fire on rebels and civilians.
07/03/11
Public protests are banned in Saudi Arabia, and attempts in the following days are crushed. Riots in Yemen continue in the face of a harsh government crackdown.
15/03/11
Saudi Arabian troops move into Bahrain at the invitation of the monarchy to assist in stopping protestors.
16/03/11
The UN calls for a cease-fire on both sides and drafts a resolution for a no-fly zone in Libya.
17/03/11
UNSC Resolution 1973 authorizes member states to take “all necessary measures… to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamhariya, including Benghazi, while excluding an occupation force.” Pro Gadhafi forces bomb the Benghazi airport and continue to attack the city over the next few days with mortars and artillery.
19/03/11
French fighter jets enter Libyan air-space in reconnaissance missions and also hit government armoured vehicles. Ships from the US, UK, Italy, France and Canada sit off the coast of Libya and American warships launch cruise missiles at Libyan airfields.
Protests begin in various cities in Syria including Damascus but are quickly clamped down on with deaths in Deraa. King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia promises a multibillion-pound package of reforms, pay rises, cash, loans and apartments in an attempt to avoid further unrest.
20/03/11
President Saleh of Yemen dismisses his cabinet. Fighting continues in Libya.
23-25/03/11
Demonstrations take place in Syria in Deraa, Homs, Hama, Latakia and Damascus with the government retaliating and killing protestors.
24-25/03/11
NATO takes command of naval and air operations, continuing attacks on Libya.
26/03/11
Rebel forces in Libya recapture Ajdabiya, Brega and Ra’s Lanuf following Gadhafi forces’ retreat. Fighting continues over Misrata. President Saleh continues to lose his grip over Yemen as protests continue.
29/03/11
Death tolls hit the hundreds in Syria. President Bashar al-Assad sacked his cabinet but did not lift emergency law, promising to restore rigid order in the country. Gadhafi’s forces make a comeback in Brega, Libya.
01/04/11
Syrian security forces open fire on thousands of demonstrators across the country.
01-15/04/11
Rebels, NATO and pro-Gadhafi forces continue to fight over Tripoli, Brega, Ajdabiya and Misrata. Russia, China and India prevent sanctions being imposed on Libya. 100,000 demonstrate in Egypt about the delays in the prosecution of former president Mubarak.
16-30/04/11
Misrata is bitterly fought over, subjected to continuous shelling, and NATO airstrikes. The humanitarian situation is dire, with medical supplies dwindling. Syria lifts emergency law on the 19th, and passes a law allowing peaceful protests but these pro-democratic concessions are insufficient to appease protestors, and ring somewhat hollow in the
face of security forces opening fire on protestors in Homs, Damascus and Deraa over the following days, killing hundreds. The cities are also suffering generally from lack of food, water, medical supplies and electricity.
1-7/05/11
Thousands continue to protest, demanding the removal of President Assad in Syria, and the military are used for the first time in response. Thousands have been arrested and detained. In Libya, Misrata is starved of fuel as four large oil tanks are destroyed.
8-15/05/11
The EU sets “an embargo on exports to Syria of arms and equipment that could be used for internal repression, as well as a visa ban and an assets freeze targeting 13 officials and associates of the Syrian regime who have been identified as being responsible for the violent repression against the civilian population in Syria.” No sanctions are placed directly against President Assad until the 19th.
In Egypt sectarian differences once again come to the fore with clashes between Coptic Christians and the Muslim majority. But demonstrations are also held calling for unity, as well as in support of a recent Fatah-Hamas reconciliation agreement signed in Cairo.
16-22/05/11
Airstrikes continue in Libya. Uprisings continue in Syria and Yemen. President Obama endorses the uprisings in Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Syria, and Bahrain
23-31/05/11
President Saleh refuses to sign a deal to leave office in exchange for immunity. G8 leaders pledge more than $20 billion in loans to Tunisia and Egypt over the next two years.20 Even heavier airstrikes hit Tripoli.21 Almost 1,000 key targets have been struck since the beginning of the campaign in April. Egypt refers Hosni Mubarak to court on the 24th.
27/06/11
The ICC issues arrest warrants for Muammar Gadhafi, his son Saif al-Islam, and Intelligence Chief Abdullah Senussi for crimes against humanity, although it will be left to the Libyan government to enforce them.
29/06/11
Fighting breaks out again in Cairo over the slow pace of reform, demanding the resignation of Egypt’s de facto leader, Field Marshall Mohammed Hussein Tantawi, as security forces fired tear gas and rubber bullets into the crowds.
02/07/11
Reconciliation talks have begun in Bahrain between the Sunni monarchy and the main Shia opposition party, Al Wefaq, following an investigation into possible human rights violations during prior crackdowns on rioters.
17/07/11
Egypt’s PM Essam Sharaf fires his ministers of finance, industry and foreign affairs elections are postponed to November.
18-31/07/11
Syria’s cabinet backs a draft law to allow opposition to the Ba’ath party but protests continue to intensify here and in Libya in the lead up to Ramadan, with rebels making a third attempt to capture Brega. General Abdel Fatah Younis, top commander of the rebel forces is killed.
1-15/08/11
The Egyptian army forcefully retakes Tahrir square. The trial of former president Mubarak and his sons begins. President Assad sends in tanks to crush protests in the central city of Hama, Syria, killing up to 100 people. King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia calls for an end to the bloodshed in Syria and recalls his ambassador to Damascus. More than 5,000 Palestinian refugees flee a camp in the port city, Latakia, as it comes under fire from gunships.
Actions Taken by the UN
The reaction of the United Nations has largely been one of words rather than actions. The Secretary-General has made several statements urging smooth and peaceful transitions in countries within the region, as well as calling for the immediate cessation of violence against their populations.The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights has also issued statements deploring the human rights violations in Syria by military and security forces.24 Admittedly the Human Rights Council did suspend Libya and reject Syria’s candidature for membership.
Further sanctions have been taken by the EU, banning imports of oil from Syria. These took effect on the 3rd of September on the heels of more violence, and are particularly important as Syria exports 95% of its oil to Europe and the revenue accounts for 25% of its income.
In terms of real action from the Security Council however, this appears to be limited to Libya. In addition to a referral to the International Criminal Court, resolutions 1970 and 1973 were passed in February and March 2011 respectively, and are some of the mostmwide-ranging resolutions to be passed in decades.
Resolution 1970 demands an end to the violence and urges the Libyan government to respect human rights. More importantly, it sets up an arms embargo to stop the supply, sale or transfer of weapons and ammunition, military vehicles and equipment, technical assistance, training, financial or other assistance, related to military activities,
including the provision of armed mercenary personnel. It also calls upon all states to freeze any financial assets held by the Gadhafi family within their borders, to be made available for the Libyan people at a later date.
The second resolution, 1973, repeats calls for a cease-fire and for the Libyan authorities to respect international humanitarian law but it
introduces the imposition of a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace in order to “help protect civilians.” Nonetheless Member States are allowed to “take all necessary measures to enforce compliance with the ban on flights”
and protect “civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack.”This has been interpreted broadly by some countries, notably the US, UK and France and led to the NATO air campaign that has largely hit
strategic targets, but admittedly has also caused innocent civilian deaths.
This, in addition to a general feeling by Russia and China that they were misled in the original negotiations for resolution 1973 is likely acting as a block to further SC action in Syria or Yemen. They, in addition with the other BRICS nations, have opposed attempts to pass a resolution on the issues.
Actions Taken by the Arab League
It is notable that the Arab League asked the Security Council to set up the no-fly zone, but has since been critical of NATO actions. Former Secretary General Amr Mussa declared that “what has happened in Libya differs from the goal of imposing a no-fly zone and what we want is the protection of civilians and not bombing other civilians.”
It has also requested that USD 2.5 billion be unfrozen for the purposes of providing paying the wages of public sector employees and provide humanitarian aid to the Libyan people. Whilst the UN has not yet created a resolution to this effect, countries with frozen assets have unilaterally freed these and have been transferring them to Libya for use.
The League agreed on the 27th of August to admit the National Transitional Council to represent the interests of the Libyan people
by its resolution No. 7370. The Council has pledged that it will create a new constitution and hold elections within 18 months, although it remains to be seen whether this promise will hold any water.
The other country that has been under scrutiny by the League is Syria. The present Secretary General, Nabil al-Arabi, has changed his stance from that in July where he stated that there was “no pressure whatsoever on the Arab League to make a decision over Syria similar the one made over Libya,”but action now may be coming too little, too late.
Al-Arabi has taken a trip to Damascus to try and stop the violence against Syrians, presenting a peace plan. The League met over the last weekend in August to discuss the bloodshed, calling it “a clear violation of the principles of the Arab League charter and of the foundations of joint Arab action.”Even Iran, one of Syria’s closest allies, has called for the government to “answer to the demands of its people.”
Discussion of the Problem
It is not viable for states to wait until there is once again relative peace and stability for them to work out how to begin the process of rebuilding their countries. Physical rebuilding is obviously necessary in countries such as Libya which have been hit heavily and need to look at constructing infrastructure, and replacing transport routes for essentials like food, water and medicine.
In determining how to move forward with construction it will be useful to look at both cooperation between Arab nations, and with outside investment. FDI will likely be relatively easy to obtain as the Western world tries to have its hand in shaping the new Middle East, and so it is important that each state considers what strings may be attached to the money that they accept. Another source of revenue for Libya at least, will be the assets of the Gadhafi family that are currently being unfrozen and transferred back.
But there is also a need to consider political and economic rebuilding, particularly in light of what is seen as a power vacuum as the NTC struggles to even gain entry to Tripoli. Egypt and Tunisia will also need to consider how to structure new governments and constitutions – which values to emphasise, and the evolving role of women in society.
Whilst it has been largely overlooked in written stories, Arab women have been just as, if not more, active than men in the protests, often crowding the streets with their children in tow. It is reminiscent of their role in the Algerian revolution from France from 1954 to 1962 where they stood at the forefront of the movement, only to be relegated to the back of political life once more after the battle was won.
This is a particular worry in Egypt as parties are growing and jockying for support in the months before elections. One sign of change is Buthayna Kamel, who is the first female to ever run for President – a concept unthinkable in Mubarak’s era. The military has retained a ban on candidates from the Muslim Brotherhood running under their own banner, and so they must run as representatives of smaller parties, but it is likely that Egypt will retain its conservative air; something familiar to cling to in the midst of upheaval.
Governments of other states, such as Saudi Arabia, which have been able to avoid violence on such a large scale may wish to maintain the status quo, or as near as possible to there, and simply hope that they can continue to strike a balance between carrot and stick which will allow them to remain in power. These can only be seen as stop-gap measures, and it could be argued that it may be better to consider smaller, slower movements towards change which can be taken at a pace decided by the government rather than forced upon them as a reaction to mass rioting and international pressure.
An additional issue which must be addressed is that of refugees. It will not be possible for them to return to their homes until the violence has stopped, but even then work will need to occur to rebuild neighbourhoods with houses, schools, and supplies of electricity and water. This process would be smoother if the League had a hand in overseeing the moving of people across borders, and in the mean time considered what support it could give to the states which are shouldering the burden of thousands of extra people within their borders.
Lastly the League should consider whether it wishes to take action in Yemen, where the Saleh regime has been ruthless in cracking down on protests. The President has danced around the idea of relinquishing power but has yet to do so, and although the eyes of the rest of the world are centered on Syria, a statement regarding Yemen may help rehabilitate the League’s reputation of hypocrisy and inaction.
