Will the New Revised Curriculum produce Scientists with both Knowledge and Skills?
Introduction
‘The Most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach them accordingly’ (Ausubel, 1968, pp 18)
‘Learning is an enduring change in the mechanisms of behaviour involving specific stimuli and/or responses that result from prior experience with these stimuli and responses’(Damjon, 1993, pp140)
Over the last forty years the view that prior knowledge needs to be built upon to help our children to learn has not changed. So why has there been so much change in regards to the curriculum? Will the ‘New Revised Curriculum’ encourage our children to achieve their maximum intellectual potential?
Discussion
The Curriculum
The main emphasis of the Post Graduate Certificate of Education course is to produce teachers that fully understand the ‘New Revised Curriculum’ and are able to use the strategies and techniques taught and learnt while on the course ‘to empower young people to achieve their potential and to make informed and responsible decisions throughout their lives’ and through the curriculum objectives:
* Develop the young person as an individual
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* Develop the young person as a contributor to society
* Develop the young person as a contributor to the economy and the environment
(NI Curriculm)
The active learning strategies used are very different to how I was taught many years ago, the main method of teaching twenty five years ago from first to third year in secondary school, in my opinion could be described as transmitting of information from teacher to pupils, which was assessed through testing, which depended on the ability to recall the information. The lessons were very fact filled and little investigation was performed. The teachers did not have a curriculum, but planned their lessons in accordance to what pupils needed to know for their GCSE’s. So the first three years in secondary school was a good foundation to the knowledge that would be required for GCSE.
In this essay, I will be looking at ‘How Children Learn’ with a focus on Science. In 1990 the Northern Ireland Curriculum was implemented, which was a very detailed curriculum for teachers to follow to ensure that every child had the same access to the same information. But the new revised curriculum has gone from pages of detailed information to ‘Developing pupils’ Knowledge,
Understanding and Skills’ by teaching the pupils the following topics; Organisms and Health, Chemical and Material behaviour, Forces and Energy, Earth and Universe .The subject knowledge has been decreased with a greater emphasis being placed on the following:
* develop skills in scientific methods of enquiry to further scientific knowledge and
understanding
* develop creative and critical thinking in their approach to solving scientific problems
* research scientific information from a range of sources
* develop a range of practical skills, including the safe use of science equipment
(NI Curriculum)
So as you can imagine I am somewhat sceptical, I agree with the skills that are being implemented into science as well as the ‘Whole Curriculum Skills and Capabilities’, but what will be the cost to the students as they progress further up the educational chain. At KS3 the whole ethos is about taking things at a slower pace, meeting individual needs, being open to questions and thoroughly investigating theories together to enhance prior knowledge. But the GCSE and A-Level curriculum have not been reduced in subject content, Will the pupils be able to cope with the fast pace of work required to cover the curriculum? Will they find science too difficult at KS4? Will the number of science graduates continue to drop? What is the Rationale behind this change?
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In the remainder of this essay, I will look at the:
* Rationale behind the new revised curriculum
* Behaviourism and Constructivism theories
* How educators have implemented these theories over the years, with a focus on why some of these theories have been implemented into the new revised curriculum and how they help children to learn.
Rationale of the New Revised Curriculum
When reviewing the curriculum implemented in 1990, the question was asked: ‘How well this traditional curriculum prepares young people for life and work in the 21st Century.
With so much information available at the touch of a button nowadays, ‘What is worth knowing?’ (CCEA)
These are good questions and of which I have some experience. I worked in a Pharmaceutical company for over ten years and on numerous occasions meet people that were academically qualified but did not have the skills to complete the task or the social skills to deal with customers, which were an essential part of their job. CCEA surveyed a number of employers and their challenge to education is concerned not only with what young people know, but how they interact with others and how they acquire and manage information and apply knowledge in order to solve problems and manage situations. So skills such as communication, problem solving, etc are seen as essential by employers and as our pupils are the employees of the future these issues need to be taken into consideration.
‘What is worth knowing?’ At the push of a few buttons information is readily available.
Over the last year Google and I have become great friends. When preparing Lessons, I Google for PowerPoints, Worksheets, information, images, etc and all is readily available. But I already have prior knowledge of the subject and use this information to further scaffold my understanding of the subject. So in relation to CCEA’s question, all the necessary building blocks are required at KS3, for further scaffolding at KS4, but will these be implemented by all schools?
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The Northern Ireland cohort study of almost 3000 pupils in 51 schools found, for example, that young people: consider things are important if they are relevant to their current and future lives; find connections helpful to their learning but are bored by repetition; and tend to be better learners if they have acquired some understanding of the progressive development of skills. The pupils’ plea is therefore to make learning relevant, connected and skills-based. (CCEA)
So these are the reasons for change and throughout these discussions I will highlight areas that have been implemented into the new revised curriculum which comply with this rationale.
Behaviourist Model
One of main founders of Behaviourisms was Pavlov who regarded conditioning as the basic process in learning. From his experiments in animal learning, Pavlov (1927) inferred the presence of a learning process, since the “learner” after the training programme, responded to a stimulus that previously would have been ineffective in obtaining the response. For example, the dogs salivated on the expectation of food at the end of the experiment- during the experiment they were given food every time the bell rang and thus associated the sound of the bell to the expectation of food. Pavlov called the bell a conditioned stimulus and the dogs’ salivation a conditioned response.
Skinner (1938) felt it more important to account for the nature of the variables that controlled behaviour, the key element was the rewarding or reinforcing of a desired stimulus response pattern. Skinner (1953) later differentiated between two types of reinforcement, positive reinforcement referring to the application of a reward, that makes a person want to repeat the behaviour again as the results are pleasant and negative reinforcement occurring when the learner prevents unpleasant things from happening.
This method of positive reinforcement is greatly encouraged in schools today through common everyday practice such as praise, stickers, merit systems, etc. On my placements, I have seen the effect of such positive reinforcement and believe that it does encourage children and motivate them to further excel.
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The idea of negative reinforcement or punishment is not seen as ideal by researchers, Skinner (1938) suggests that it is not an effective means of controlling behaviour, which is further reinforced by Lawrence (1996) who concludes that the teacher may well have a quiet, well behaved class but the pupils’ natural curiosity will be inhibited. One of the attitudes and dispositions in the New Revised Curriculum is curiosity.
Pavlov and Skinner believed that studying human behaviour could give them the answers to why people behave the way they do. The theory suggests that living creatures, animal or human, learn by building up associations or ‘bonds’ between their experience, their thinking and their behaviour, (Pollard, 2008).
Constructivism
Constructivism, as a theory of learning reflects the work of Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner. Constructivism considers the child as an active learner, constructing knowledge through their experiences. Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2004) state that:
‘Constructivism is a theory which regards learning as an active process in which learners construct and internalise new concepts, ideas and knowledge based on their own present and past knowledge and experiences. Knowledge is constructed rather than received’
Piaget
In Piaget’s account, when children encounter a new experience they both ‘accommodate’ their existing thinking to it and ‘assimilate’ aspects of the experience. In so doing they move beyond one state of metal ‘equilibration’ and restructure their thoughts to create another. Gradually then, children come to construct more detailed, complex and accurate understandings of the phenomena they experience, (Pollard 2008).
Piaget (1929) proposed in his theory that all children, at their own pace, progressed through a hierarchy of four age-related stages in which more complex cognitive structures developed and that this was independent of experience. The four stages are:
1. Sensorimotor: 0-2 years
2. Preoperational: 2-7 years
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3. Concrete Operational 7-11 years
4. Formal Operational 11-adult
Theorist later rejected the age related stages by considering children of any age are capable of all types of thinking provided the appropriate conditions are available (Wood, 1988; Fisher, 1990; Bruner, 1996; Fox 1999).
Piaget (1959, pp39,as quoted in ibe) states ‘Children do not learn to experiment simply by watching the teacher performing experiments or by doing exercises organised in advance; they learn by a process of trial and error, working actively and independently, that is without restriction and ample time at their disposal’. The idea of allowing time for investigation and problem solving, active and hands on, enquiry based and on-going reflection are key learning experiences in the new revised curriculum, regardless of subject. And in my opinion essential to learning, we all learn things through trial and error from preparing a meal to performing a complex chemical process.
So, Piaget image of a learner is that the child should learn actively, learn as an individual and to learn in this way must be intrinsically motivated. (Pollard, 2008)
Vygotsky
Cohen, Manion and Morrison, pp 168 states:
‘For Vygotsky, Learning is a social, collaborative and international activity in which it is difficult to ‘teach’ specifically- the teacher sets up the learning situation and enables learning to occur, with intervention to provoke and prompt that learning through scaffolding. Teachers must provide the necessary ‘scaffolding’ in developing and accelerating students’ ability to think for themselves, control and take responsibility for their own learning’
Glaser (2000) suggests:
‘that scaffolding requires the provision of rich feedback on learning to students’
And further more Cohen, Manion and Morrison suggest that small groups of children can provide scaffolding for each other. Such peer provided scaffolding is motivating and meaningful.
From this we can see that Vygotsky was a social constructivist who believed that people are very important in influencing how the child learns, as well as the environmental influences as stated by Piaget. Both Piaget and Vygotsky were concerned with cognitive development, but Piaget felt that children learned better without any interference whereas Vygotsky believes that adults have a crucial role in advancing the cognitive development of a child. Vygotsky came up with the theory of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’, this is (Vygotsky, 1978, pp 86):
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‘the distance between the actual developmental level (of the child) as determined through problem solving and the level of potential as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’
An example of this is comparing two pupils that passed the 11 plus, it could be said at this age that they both have the same level of actual development and if given the same help and guidance that they should progress at an equal pace, but as we know this is not always the case, which is generally down to social interaction with other adults and peers, plus as Piaget believes environmental influences.
Affect of Theories to Education
In the introduction, I looked at the fact that educators have known for some time that prior knowledge is very important when teaching something to a pupil and this has been known for some time, but now we will consider the rationale used over the years and why the educators now believe that building on prior knowledge is the key to ‘how children learn’.
Behaviourism in Education
Jones and Brader-Araje (2002) state that in the beginning of the 1960s, behaviourism swept from the arena of psychology into education with an air of authority that was startling. Schooling became structured around the premise that if teachers provided the correct stimuli, then students would not only learn, but their learning could be measured through observations of student behaviours. The main characteristics of behaviourism in the classroom were (Pollard, 2008):
* Teachers transmits knowledge and skills
* Learning depends on teaching and systematic reinforcement of correct behaviour.
* Children listened to an adult or worked quietly on an exercise.
Unfortunately from my observations on teaching practice this method of teaching still exists in some classrooms, the children of the 60’s and 70’s are teaching as they were taught. The lessons were long, boring and non motivational. Questioning was not encouraged and praise was only shown in the form of a merit. There was no rapport between the pupils and member of staff. I felt de- motivated at the end of the lessons and was glad when they ended. Teaching in this way does not encourage children to learn.
Pollard (2008) states that:
‘ The characteristics of behaviourism draws directly on existing subject knowledge in a logical and linear manner and when matched to existing understanding can be a fast and effective way to learn. But it does not account for individual needs. The main issues with behaviourism is the difficulty to motivate all children in the class and it was difficult to adapt subject matter to varied pupil needs.’
In my opinion behaviourism leads to de-motivation and thus the curiosity to learn is gone. Pupils become bored and disruptive. It does not meet all the different learning styles of pupils such as; Visual, Read/ Write, Aural and Kinaesthetic. In my opinion only two types of learners needs are being met and therefore the other two groups would have found it impossible to learn.
Behaviourisms not only affected pupils, it also placed the responsibility for learning directly on the shoulders of teachers (Jones and Brader-Araje, 2002).
As a consequence this approach left teachers feeling short changed and cheated by a system that placed guilt for students’ failure to learn in the hands of the teacher. A de-motivated teacher cannot motivate a class.
Something needed to change and it was at this point that the constructivism theories helped to explain the complexity of the teaching- learning process.
Constructivism in Education
As stated by Jones and Brader-Araje (2002), constructivism has emerged as one of the greatest influences on the practice of education in the last twenty five years. Constructivism’s success may be due in part to the frustrations that educators experienced with behaviourist educational practices.
Jones and Brader-Araje (2002, pp 4) suggest that:
‘Constructivism’s perspectives on the role of the individual, on the importance of meaning-making, and on the active role of the learner are the very elements that make the theory appealing to educators.’
‘By viewing learning as an active process, taking students prior knowledge into consideration, building on preconceptions, and eliciting cognitive conflict, teachers can design instruction that goes beyond rote learning to meaningful learning that is more likely to lead to deeper, longer lasting understanding.’
Ideas like these, I feel have been key influences in the formation of the ‘New Revised Curriculum’ and I will look at how these theories can be seen in the classrooms of today.
In my opinion pupils get bored with repetition and for this reason consideration of prior knowledge is very important. Before starting a new topic, I would always perform a ‘Brain Storming’ session to assess the level of knowledge and understanding that the children already have of the subject and teach the topic from this point, with reflection on some of the key points. This prevents immediate boredom, lack of motivation and stimulates curiosity.
Teachers need to take the pupil’s ideas into consideration and help the pupils to make meaning out of these by using various techniques that aid; Visual, Aural, Read/Write and Kinaesthetic learners, plus relating these ideas to everyday life. Relating ideas in science to objects in everyday life is essential to mean making. Science is everyday life, but a study of it using different words and terminology. For example, I was tutoring a student about ionic bonding and we were discussing the properties of an ionic compound. So I said “think of salt”, to which she replied “I didn’t know that sodium chloride was salt”. Now she has made the relationship that the properties of an ionic compound are the same as the properties of salt, which is a much easier concept to understand. This was an essential point in the rationale for the new revised curriculum asked for by pupils and one which I believe is very important in helping children to learn. Within all my lessons, I connect the theories and concepts that I am teaching to the world around us, through bringing in objects, pictures, animations, etc.
The new revised curriculum allows pupils to become active in their own learning and the lesson has flexibility which allows instruction to go beyond rote learning to meaningful learning. Pupils are free to ask questions. We as individuals all learn in different ways and the teacher must become a ‘Reflective Practitioner’ and take these considerations into account when designing a lesson, which is one of the main objectives of the curriculum at Key Stage 3; to develop the young person as an individual.
Vygotsky believed that the role of language is very important in terms of active learning. Vygotsky (1978, pp 25) states:
‘A child’s speech is as important as the role of action in attaining the goal. Children not only speak about what they are doing; their speech and action are part of one and the same complex psychological function, directed toward the solution of the problem at hand’
This idea has been implemented into the new revised curriculum, as a ‘Whole Curriculum Skill’ described as communication. I believe communicating is essential to learning, both by communicating with yourself and then with others.
As children play, they constantly speak to themselves. Play has been shown to improve planning and problem-solving abilities, it enables children to integrate new ideas and practice new skills, and it promotes language use, creativity and flexibility of thought. (Sproule et al, 2001).
Parker-Rees (1999, Reading 7.4) has built on this analysis suggesting that playfulness, whilst vital for young children, is also important at all ages and is a foundation of creativity, imagination and problem solving. Perhaps playfulness should be a criterion for becoming a teacher? (as quoted in Pollard, 2008).
I believe to teach the New Revised Curriculum that this is true, because teachers need to produce lessons that are creative, imaginative and produce problems that need to be solved.
Vygotsky (1978) argues that language is first interpersonal, between the child and the external world, and then becomes intrapersonal.
The types of activities that are characteristic of constructivism are Individuals; making, experimenting, playing or otherwise doing something. (Pollard, 2008) The ‘New Revised Curriculum’ encourages such activities and I truly believe them to have a beneficial effect to how pupils learn, as well as their enjoyment of the subject. Within my lessons, I would employ a variety of activities for example, podcasting, practical investigation, discussions, interactive quizzes, designing of posters, peer teaching, etc. The pupils learn through play, but are also motivated to learn more. They are curious to know what we will be doing in class the next day. Within one of my classes, I have a student who is described a ‘Lesson Avoider’, he has a full time classroom assistant who is with him all the time and he decides which lessons he will attend. He was not present at my first few lessons, but turned up to one lesson and has not missed any since. I know from other comments by pupils that they also enjoy these learning activities. These activities also allow me time to build up a rapport with the pupils, as I stroll around the class and offer assistance when required. Pupils feel at ease to ask me questions and are happy and confident to answer questions.
As discussed in Vygotsky’s theories scaffolding seems to be a key element in learning also, which again relates to mean making. Research was carried out prior to the implementation of the new revised curriculum, in which it states:
‘Scaffolding refers to the teacher’s construction of a learning environment which enables the child to move into uncharted territory. This environment includes appropriate questioning, drawing the child’s attention to salient facts and pointing out errors. The scaffolding is gradually removed as the child’s knowledge moves forward’ (NI Curriculum)
Such assistance in learning can come in many ways. It may take the form of an explanation by or discussion with a knowledgeable teacher; it may reflect a debate among a group of children as they strive to solve a problem or complete a task; it might come from discussion with a parent or from watching a television programme, (Pollard, 2008, pp179).
I am always conscious when preparing lessons that I have a number of methods of mean making that meet different individual needs. I may also have a video, a writing exercise and a cardsort all looking at the one concept, so that all pupils can learn.
Social Constructivism in now found widely in schools through the use of active learning strategies such as; brainstorming, card sorts, debates, drama, games, etc. The emphasis of these activities is that pupils are working together while sharing ideas and challenging each others’ views.
‘Constructivism’s’ greatest contribution to education may be through the shift in emphasis from knowledge as a product to knowing as a process’ (Jones and Brader-Araje , 2002)
Conclusion
A change in our education system was definitely needed and as you can see the ‘New Revised Curriculum’ has taken a large number of the constructivists theories into consideration, along with positive reinforcement suggested by Skinner.
Pupils need to see relevance in what they are learning and make connections between what they are learning in science with what they have learned in the past and the world around us. This building on prior knowledge is essential for mean making and helps to enhance the learning process. Interaction with adults and more knowledgeable peers increases the level of potential of the pupil. The various active learning strategies help to produce pupils that are happy, confident, motivated, independent learners, who possess a variety of skills, social and otherwise. The interactions between teachers and pupils during these activities builds on a good working relationship, which is required in all areas of life, and promotes questioning which helps to satisfy the pupils curiosity.
In my opinion, the pupils understanding and enjoyment of a topic using the strategies of the new revised curriculum will exceed those pupils taught during the era of behaviourism. And I truly believe that pupils will enter KS4 with the desired motivation and curiosity required to learn.
But will the lack of subject knowledge acquired in KS3 have an effect on the scaffolding process in KS4 and lead to de-motivation? Or will the skills acquired along with the subject knowledge in KS3, enable pupils to solve any problems faced with in KS4?
What will be the concerns of the employers in the future, I wonder?
