2. Literature Review
2.1 Alcohol Addiction
2.1.1 Historical Perspective
Alcohol is the oldest known drug in human history. The production of alcohol beverages dates back to as early as 8000 BC and it can still be obtained legally today (Feldman et al. 1997et).
Although it provides metabolic energy, alcohol beverages are mainly consumed for their psychoactive, sedative effects. Light to moderate alcohol consumption may have a benedictory effect on heart disease (Puddey and Croft 1999); however, many drinkers lose control over their drinking and develop a series of behavioral responses, which ay include tolerance, sensitization and addiction to alcohol.
Over the past fifty years, researchers have shown increased interest in the study of the family’s role in the etiology, course, treatment and prevention of addiction (Jacob, 1992).
Addiction has been determined to have pervasive and negative effects on the family (Edwards & Steinglass, 1995; Preli et al., 1990).
High levels of marital problems, mental and physical illness, divorce, unemployment, economic loss, legal conflicts, inadequate parenting, sexual inadequacy, and physical and sexual abuse problems are associated with alcoholism (Edwards & Steinglass al., 1995; O’Farrell et al., 1999; Preli et al., 1990; Rotunda et al., 1995).
Throughout the years, research has produced a wide variety of theories on what the probable causation of addiction might be.
The Term Paper on Alcohol Addiction
... sold. This essay will look at the different effects that alcohol addiction has on a person’s life and what strategies the Government ... only making sure they have enough money for the alcohol they need. Addiction can also be difficult for family and social life, ... howeve takes into consideration the idea that an addiction only has a physiological effect on the body rather than a psychological one. ...
Specifically, addiction researchers have attempted to determine what factors need to be addressed in the prevention and treatment of addiction.
Alcohol abuse results in tremendous social and economic costs. It has been estimated that as many as 4.65 ℅ of American adults’ abuse alcohol (Grant et al. 2004) and approximately 100,000 deaths each year are associated with this disorder (Gordis 2000).
Economically, alcohol abuse in the USA is associated with a loss of 184.6 billion dollars annually (Gordis 2000).
Alcohol abuse is often associated with higher occurrence of other disease state or disorders such as heavy smoking, breast cancer, cirrhosis and chronic pancreatitis (Merril et al 1993).
Alcoholics anonymous and behavioral therapy are choices for non- drug therapies to treat the alcohol dependence. Despite the significant advances in the treatment for alcoholism, a specific molecular mechanism underlying the development of this disease is still unclear.
2.1.2. Types of Alcoholics
Experts who agree with the endorphin theory may classify alcoholics into three types.
Type I alcoholics are characterized as “born alcoholics.” These individuals are born with a generic defect in their endorphin- producing system. They drink to make up the lack of endorphins, because alcohol temporarily creates a false sense of well being. Eventually, however, alcohol further weakens the brain’s ability to produce endorphins.
Type II alcoholics are characterized as “stress- induced” drinkers. They are born with normal brain chemistry. But as a result of their drinking to relieve stress, their natural levels of endorphins are reduced. Thus, temporary alcoholic behavior occurs.
Type III alcoholics are “characterized as “drug- induced” drinkers. They once had normal brain chemistry, but continued use of alcohol has weakened the brain’s ability to produce a normal endorphins.
2.1.3 Findings Concerning Alcohol Addiction
Numerous research reports attest to the significant impact of drinking on accidents, suicide and violence. The findings of studies using different methods and data from a wide spectrum of countries and cultures are consistent in this respect. Drinking to intoxication increases the likelihood of injury or death from accidents and violence. Many of those involved in accidents, self- inflicted injury or violence had been drinking more often, it seems, as victims of violence (some 40-65% of whom had been drinking) than of various types of accident ( some 20- 30%).
The Essay on Teen Alcohol Abuse Alcoholic Beverage
Few people who complain about the abuse of drugs by young people realize that alcohol abuse is rising even more dramatically. Alcohol treatment centers across the country report that they are seeing a new kind of patient: the twelve to seventeen-year-old, who may have been drinking go rr two to five years. While twenty-one is the legal age to drink alcohol, many start early in their teens ...
Also, some 20-50% of people who commit suicide or attempted suicide were intoxicated and heavy drinkers are at particular risk of injury, whether from accidents, self- inflicted harm or violence. Although alcohol is involved in a large proportion of injuries, it is not evident that it is always the cause: some would have occurred in its absence. Yet from a preventive perspective it should be noted that injuries from accidents and violence, as well as suicide, have shown significant reductions when alcohol consumption n a population has decreased, whether as a result of particular policy measures or for other reasons.
Without question alcohol plays a major role in crime, especially in crimes of violence. In international comparisons, the category of assaults and homicides is that with the highest level of alcohol involvement, ranging between 35% (Canada) and 85 % (Sweden).
There is empirical evidence illustrating the damage which alcohol consumption inflicts on working relations and career opportunities. Numerous workplace problems, including sexual and other forms of harassment are linked with use of alcohol.
A tolerant social climate towards public drunkenness goes together with high arrest rates and vice versa which suggests that informal social control has a greater influence on behavior than legislation. Both are necessary, however, to reach an optimum of costs, control and acceptable public order.
Alcohol or alcohol addiction often triggers highly disruptive behavior such as football hooliganism and racial violence or is advanced as a mitigating factor to escape punishment.
.
2.2 Alcoholism
Alcoholism is defined as “A primary, chronic disease with genetic psychosocial and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations. The disease is often progressive and fatal. It is characterized by impaired control over drinking; preoccupation with the drug alcohol; the use of alcohol despite adverse consequences and distortions in thinking” (Morse & Flavin, 1992, p.1013).
The Essay on Alcohol Related Crime Violence Driving Suicide
SSP 152 - Alcohol. Science. Society. May 1, 1998 There is a certain responsibility that an individual must take upon themselves when they choose to consume alcohol. It can affect how we think, feel, and act. There may be repercussions if alcohol is not handled carefully. Alcohol can release the inhibitions that control activity, which may lead some to turn crime or similar activities; disregarding ...
Addiction is defined as “Dependence on or commitment to a habit, practice, or habit forming substance to the extent that its cessation causes trauma” (Random House-Webster’s College Dictionary, 1992, p.16).
Alcoholism or alcoholic addiction or dependence is a disease that affects the lives of millions of Americans, devastates families, compromises national preparedness, depresses economic vitality, and burdens the country’s health care systems. This disease touches virtually all Americans. More than half of all adults have a family history of alcoholism or problem drinking. Three in ten adults 18 years of age and over have had alcoholism and/or engaged in alcohol abuse at some point in their lives and their drinking will impact their families, communities, and society as a whole each year.
2.2.1 Causes and effects of alcohol addiction
“Characteristics such as dependency, denial, depression, superficial sociability, emotional instability, suspiciousness, low tolerance for frustration, impulsivity, self-devaluation, and chronic anxiety occur in high frequency among alcoholics” (Lawson et al., 1983, pp. 78-79).
Research indicates alcoholism frequently has a genetic origin, that is, the compulsion to drink alcohol is a characteristic passed on from parents to their children. Some researchers believe certain alcoholics may be born with a reduced level of endorphins are morphine like substances in the brain that relieve feelings of stress and pain. People who lack sufficient endorphins may drink compulsively to regain feelings of well-being. Some researchers believe psychological pressures, such as stress, may cause alcoholism. Alcoholics believe they can make life bearable only by drinking.
Alcohol is a drug that lowers the activity of the nervous system. Specifically, alcohol affects the control centers of the brain. As a result, intoxicated people may lose their self- control and behave in ways that are unacceptable to other people. They may experience mental confusion and an inability to walk steadily or talk clearly.
Prolonged heavy drinking of alcohol can produce more serious effects. For example a condition known as delirium tremens, may result after an alcoholic stops drinking. This condition results in mental confusion, hallucinations, violent trembling and sometimes death. Prolonged excessive drinking also may cause cirrhosis, a disease that damages the liver. Women who drink heavily during pregnancy may give birth to babies who suffer from alcohol syndrome. Such babies are abnormally small at birth and may have malformed organs or be mentally retarded.
Research Paper on Drinking & Driving
... that I have conducted my research on was drinking and driving in teens. Every ... 2010, 10,228 people were killed in alcohol-impaired driving crashes, accounting for nearly ... age group there is a lower percent tile of accidents, which can tell ... fact that they have done the action in their life before. Undergoing such ... on the NO DRINKING AND DRIVING, instead of just promoting the alcoholic beverages on ...
2.2.2 Social Problems
In fact, there are multiple of social problems caused due to alcohol addiction.
Trauma and Burns
Alcohol plays a significant role in trauma by increasing both the likelihood and severity of injury. Heavy drinkers or alcohol abusers are more likely than others to be involved in a trauma event. Given similar circumstances, a drinker is also likely to be hurt more seriously than a non-drinker. Moreover, an estimated 27 percent of all trauma patients treated in emergency departments and hospitals are candidates for a brief alcohol intervention. Alcohol exposure can also alter inflammatory responses and immune function and this can be exacerbated if there is an existing or concurrent injury. Research suggests that chronic heavy drinking depresses estrogen levels, nullifying estrogen’s beneficial effects on the immune system and weakening a woman’s ability to fight infections and tumors. Additionally, some research suggests that this detrimental effect may be compounded by an alcohol-induced elevation in steroidal hormones, known as glucocorticoids, which suppress immune responses in both men and women.
Domestic Violence and Crimes
The relationship between alcohol or other substance abuse and domestic violence is complicated. Frequently the perpetrator, the victim or both have been using alcohol heavily. According to the National Woman Abuse Prevention Project, some abusers rely on substance use (and abuse) as an excuse for becoming violent. Alcohol allows the abuser to “justify” abusive behavior. While an abuser’s use of alcohol may have an effect on the severity of the abuse or the ease with which the abuser can justify their actions, an abuser does not become violent “because” drinking causes them to lose control of their temper.
According to the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), nearly 11 percent of violent incidents reported in 2007 involved alcohol. In 2008, among victims who provided information about the offender’s use of alcohol, about 36 percent perceived the offender to be under the influence of alcohol, which is a decrease from 44 percent in 1997. From 2004-2008, 19 percent of all alcohol-related violence was perpetrated by intimate partners, compared to 15 percent of violence in which alcohol was not involved.
The Research paper on Research Critique Of Study On Newborn Temperature Regulation
Abstract The authors (Chiu, Anderson, & Burkhammer, 2005) of the article present all the essential components of the research study. There will be a decrease in temperature in the newborn if having difficulties breastfeeding while having skin-to-skin contact with the mother. That was the inferred hypothesis. The method used to gather the information was a pretest-test-post test study design ...
Automobile Related Accidents
In 2008, 11,773 people were killed in alcohol-impaired-driving crashes. These alcohols-impaired-driving fatalities accounted for 32 percent of the total motor vehicle traffic fatalities in the United States; and represented an average of one alcohol-impaired-driving fatality every 45 minutes. Traffic fatalities in alcohol-impaired-driving crashes fell by nearly 10 percent, from 13,041 in 2007 to 11,773 in 2008. Drivers are considered to be alcohol-impaired when their blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is .08 grams per deciliter (g/dL) or higher.12 Over 1.4 million drivers were arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol or narcotics in 2008. This represents less than one percent of the 159 million self-reported episodes of alcohol-impaired driving in the U.S. each year. Of the 1,347 children age 14 and younger were killed in motor vehicle crashes in the U.S. in 2008, 216 (16 percent) of these fatalities occurred in alcohol-impaired driving crashes. Children riding in vehicles with drivers who had a BAC level of .08 or higher accounted for nearly half (99) of these deaths.12-14
Underage Drinking
According to the Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), there were approximately 200,000 emergency room visits in 2009 by people under the age of 21 for injuries and other conditions linked to alcohol. This is compared to an estimated 40,000 annual emergency room visits linked to non-alcohol illicit substances by persons under 21.15
The 2009 Youth Risk Behavior Survey found that among high school students surveyed,9.7 percent reported driving after drinking alcohol one or more times during the 30 days before the survey. Another 28 percent indicated that they rode with a driver who had been drinking one or more times during the past 30 days.
The Research paper on Changing a Qualitative Research Into a Quantitative Study
Fry and her colleagues undertook a qualitative research to develop a moral distress model in military nursing. Using the same problem statement, literature analysis and background information, this paper aims at converting the qualitative study carried out by Fry and her colleagues into a quantitative study. The study entails setting different research questions and collecting data that aims at ...
Scientists at NIH are supporting research to promulgate pre-emptive care for fetuses, early childhood, and adolescents because children who engage in early alcohol use also typically display a wide range of adverse behavioral outcomes such as teenage pregnancy, delinquency, other substance use problems, and poor school achievement.
2.2.3 Treatment
Treatment for alcoholics includes care for their physical and emotional needs. The patient first goes through a condition called withdrawal, during which all alcoholic beverages are withheld. Many alcoholics suffer convulsions and hallucinations during withdrawal.
Rehabilitation procedures include individual, group or family therapy. Treatment centers for alcoholics have been set up by corporations, medical centers and federal and state agencies. Such organizations as Alcoholics Anonymous, Al- Anon and Alateen have played a major role in helping alcoholics and their families overcome their problems. Prevention of alcoholism in children of alcoholics may eventually be possible through the use of psychological testing and examination of body fluid chemistry and brain- wave patterns
2.3 Action Research
The concept of action research was originated by Lewin (Gill & Johnson 2009).
It is a model of change, based upon action and research.
2.3.1 Definition of Action Research
According to Dr Stephen Corey ( Pathak 2008,p.11), “ the process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions….”
Dr Corey further states, “A useful definition of “Action Research” is the research a person conducts in order to enable him to achieve his purposes more effectively.
2.3.2 The Pertinence of Action Research to Methodology
Basically, this study on the social problems due to alcohol addiction cannot be entirely reliable on either qualitative or quantitative data. It would be wise to use effectively a mixture of both for the collection and analysis of data. The above idea is supported by Mishler’s study in 1986c (cited in Willig & Rogers 2008) that it is quite difficult for a particular research to conform exclusively to a standard methodology.
According to Cohen and Manion (1994), action research is fitting and appropriate when a new approach is to be implemented.
3. Research Methodology
In this part, the methodology is chosen and used for the study to ensure validity and reliability. The subjects for this study were family members of present and former clients in Anonymous Alcohol Outpatient Treatment clients. In this group, every family member had an equal opportunity to participate. To address the issues stated in this research work, a set of statistical tools will be used to collect, analyze and represent data (quantitative and qualitative).
3.1 Data Collection Tools
The data collection tools that will be used to implement this research will be: observation check list, clients’ interviews, assessments and questionnaires.
3.1.1 Observation Check List
An observation check list is used to collect qualitative data. I can observe the alcoholic’s attitudes and behaviors while they are engaged in the treatment processes. According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison ( 2007, p.396), observational- generated data have the potential to ‘ be open ended and inductive, to see things that might otherwise be unconsciously missed to discover things hat participants might not freely talk about in interview situation’.
Moreover, the data collected from observation can be considered to be unbiased and reliable in the sense that it does not depend on the participants’ agreement to provide the desired data. ( Bootwala, Lawrence & Mali n.d).
3.1.2 Interviews
From an interview, qualitative data are collected as a result of the semi- structured questions that will be asked. In interviews, the researcher can probe deeper and find out more information. Moreover, the type of data that was missed out with the observation check list will be collected via through these interviews. Merriam (229, p.88), in revealing Patton’s study, explained in 2002 that ‘we interview people to find out from them those things we cannot directly observe’.
3.1.3 Assessments
Assessment is a method that has a positive impact on progression, in terms of clients’ achievement. Findings from studies (Bloom 1984 & William 1998; Black 2003; Meisels, Atkins- Burnett, Xue, Bickel & Hon 2003; Rodriguiz 2004, cited in Stiggins et al. 2004) indeed reveal that standardized tests provide evidence of the positive effect of assessment on client progression.
The data gathered from assessments are quantitative and the former will be used in the data analysis phase.
3.1.4 Survey Questionnaires
Survey questionnaires should be neither close ended nor open ended. In fact, it should be semi- structured. However, open ended questions can be preferred if the possible answers are indefinite (Bailey 1994, cited in Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2007).
Even though the close ended questionnaire is time consuming in its set up, Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007, p.321) declared that ‘the mode of analysis might be comparatively rapid.’
3.1.5 Validity and Reliability
In any scientific research, issues of validity and reliability are considered as highly important in evaluating the results of a study. Zeller pointed out in 1980 (cited in Keeves 1988) that validity refers to the degree to which an observed indicant measures what it claims to measure. From the perspective of Frankel and Wallen (1993), validity is referred to the suitability, meaningfulness and effectiveness of the targeted judgment researchers make, based on the data they collect.
Reliability, like validity, will be a constant concern at different points of the study. It raises the question of whether another researcher, undergoing the same study, shall reach the same conclusion. To support the above idea, Hammersley (1992, p.67) stated that ‘reliability refers to the degree of consistency with which instances are assigned to the same category by different observers or by the same observer on different occasions.’ Furthermore, Frankel and Wallen (1993), stated that reliability refers to the consistency of the scores or answers provided by an instrument.
3.1.6. Ethical Consideration
Before launching on the project, I should seek the permission of the administration of Anonymous Alcoholic and explain to them the nature of my research. I shall also give verbal guarantee to all participants from the selected group that confidentiality will be preserved. From Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007, p.58), Cavan, in 1977, claimed that ethics is such that ‘while truth is good, respect for dignity is better’
3.2 Implementation of the Research Methodology
3.2.1 Sampling and Data Collection
An action research consisting of 3 cycles will be carried out in an Anonymous Alcoholic centre found in the upper Plaine Wilhems. Our sample in this research comprises of 20 targeted participants having alcohol addiction problems.
The research will be processed as follows:
* For each cycle, an observation check list (qualitative data) will be used to note down each student’s attitude and behavior relative to the lessons.
* At the end of each cycle, assessments (quantitative data) will be conducted.
* At the end of all 3 cycles, surveys will be carried out in the form of questionnaires (qualitative data).
A questionnaire will be prepared.
* Interviews (qualitative data) of participants will be processed.
3.2.2. Description of Cycles
Cycle 1
In this cycle, the expository method will be used to introduce the various treatment of the research. It will consist of several phases. A reflection (or self-evaluation) will be done after each lesson.
Cycle 2
Based on the difficulties faced by participants in cycle 1, it is intended to plan lessons which are more activity based. Group works will also be used to cater for participants having difficulties and problems. Those who have already understood the lessons in cycle1 will be given problems requiring higher order thinking skills. Again, at the end of each lesson in cycle 2, a reflection will be made.
Cycle 3
If there are further difficulties from cycle 2, they would be taken into account. This cycle will make use of the same approach as in cycle 2 but would be modified and improved based on observations and reflections made in cycle 2.
3.2.3. Group Arrangements
The participants will be split into small 5 groups of 6 for the proper functioning of the therapy. The 20 participants are arranged such that they are positioned in heterogeneous groups. So as to increase objectivity of this study, both qualitative and quantitative data will be used.
Thus for qualitative data, we shall focus on group interviews, unstructured interview of personnel of the department and also overt participation observation check list will be used. This data collection method allows flexibility in conducting data gathering, research analysis and interpretation of gathered information.
While for quantitative data, assessments will be used to evaluate progress. Quantitative approach is useful as it helps the researcher to prevent bias in gathering and presenting research data. The purpose of the quantitative approach is to avoid subjectivity by means of collecting and exploring information which describes the experience being studied.
The primary data will be derived from the answers and observations obtained whereas the secondary data will be available from relevant documents already published. The key issues that should be taken into consideration are reliability, validity and ethics of the research.
3.2.4. Data Analysis and Representation
The last stage will be the analysis and representation of all relevant data collected. The Microsoft Excel will be used whereby it provides a set of data analysis tools, for example, ANOVA, the F-test, the t-test (used for to test two sets of data), graphic displays- bar charts, pie charts or frequency polygons etc. These analysis tools will give a better understanding of the data collected.
Conclusion
My research in this area that is the research concerning the social problems caused due to alcohol addiction, grew when I analyzed the high rates of use and abuse of alcohol are devastating problems of national importance, the good news is that this nation is poised to capitalize on unprecedented opportunities in alcohol research and prevention. These opportunities must be seized. Scientists are exploring new and exciting ways to prevent alcohol-associated accidents and violence and more prevention trials are developing methods to address problem alcohol use. Medications development is proceeding faster than anytime in the past 50 years, with many new compounds being developed and tested. Furthermore, researchers have identified discrete regions of the human genome that contribute to the inheritance of alcoholism. Improved genetic research will accelerate the rational design of medications to treat alcoholism and also improve understanding of the interaction and importance of heredity and environment in the development of alcoholism.
Bibliography
Azrin, N. H. (1976).
Improvements in the community-reinforcement approach to alcoholism. Behavioral Research Therapy, 14, 339-348.
Blaxter, L, Hughes, C & Tight, M 2006, How to Research, 3rd edn, McGraw-Hill International, England.
Bootwala, S, Lawrence, MD & Mali, SR n.d., Training and development M.P.M. Part II – Semester III, Nirali Prakashan, India.
Bandura, A. (1977).
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavior change. Psychology Review, 84, 191-215.
Billings, A. G., Kessler, M., Gomberg, C. A., & Weiner, S. (1979).
Marital conflict resolution of alcoholic and nonalcoholic couples during drinking and nondrinking sessions. Journal of Studies of Alcohol, 40, 183-195.
Black, C. (1981).
It will never happen to me. Denver: ACT Publishers.
Blume, k., Noble E. P., Sheridan P. J., Montgomery, A., Ritchie, T., Jagadeeswaren, T., Gagami, H., Briggs, A., & Cohen, J. (1990).
Alcoholic association of humane dopamine D2 receptor gene in alcoholism. Journal of the American Medical Association, 263, 2055-2066.
Brown, S. & Lewis, V. (1999).
The alcoholic family in recovery. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Bundey, A. J., Higgins, S. T., Delaney, D. D., Kent, L., & Bicker W. K. (1991).
Contingent reinforcement of abstinence with individuals abusing cocaine and marijuana. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 657-665.
Cadoret, R. J. (1992).
Genetic and environmental factors in the initiation of drug use and the transition to abuse. In M. Glantz & R. Pickens (Eds.), Vulnerability to drug abuse (pp.99-113).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Cadoret, R. J., Yates, W. R., Troughton, E., Woodworth, G., & Stewart, M. A. (1995) Adoption study demonstrating two genetic pathways to drug abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 42-52.
Caroll, K. M, Rounsaville, B. J., Gordon, L. T., Nich, C., Jatlow, P., Bisighini, R. M., & Gawin, F. H. (1994).
Psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy for ambulatory cocaine abusers. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 177-187.
Cohen, L & Manion, L 1994, Research methods in education, 4th edn, Routledge, London.
Combrick-Graham (Ed.), Children in family contexts: Perspectives on treatment (pp. 277-297).
New York: Guilford Press.
Costello, R. B. (Ed.).
(1992).
Random House-Webster’s college dictionary. New York, NY: Random House.
Edwards, M. E., & Steinglass, P. (1995).
Family therapy outcomes for alcoholism. The Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 21 (4), 475-509.
Emery, R. E. (1982).
Interparental conflict and the children of discord and divorce. Psychological Bulletin, 92 310-330.
Famighetti, R., McGreveran, Jr., Weisenfeld, L. P., Ekkis, B. R., Seabrooke, K. (Eds.).
(1999).
The world Almanac and book of facts. Mahwah, NJ: Primedia Ref. Inc.
Frankenstein, W., Hay W. M., & Nathan, P. E. (1985).
Effects on intoxication on alcoholics’ marital communication and problem solving. Journal of Studies of Alcohol, 46, 1-6.
Galanter, M., & Brook, D. (2001).
Network therapy for addiction: bringing family and peer support into perspective. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 51 (1), 101-122.
Galanter, M. (1993).
Network therapy for substance abuse: A clinical trial. Psychotherapy, 30, 251-258.
Gill, J & Johnson, P 2009, Research Methods for Managers, viewed 12 October 2010,
http://books.google.mu/books?id=R4Q3u54hWEoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=research+methods+for+managers&hl=en&ei=_kS_TMfeKY3tOZHckCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990).
Marital conflict and children’s adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 267-290.
Hunt, G. M. & Azrin, N. H. (1973).
A community reinforcement approach to alcoholism. Behavioral Research and Therapy, 11, 91-94.
Jacob, T. (1992).
Family studies of alcoholism. Journal of Family Psychology, 5 (3 & 4), 319-338.
Lipps, A. J. (1999).
Family therapy in the treatment of alcohol related problems: a review of behavioral family therapy, family systems therapy, and treatment matching research. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 17 (3), 13-23.
Longabaugh, R., Beattie, M. C., Noel, N., Stout R., & Malloy, P. (1993).
The effect of social investment on treatment outcome. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 54, 465-478.
McCrady, B. (1990).
The marital relationship and alcoholism treatment. In R.L. Collins, K. L. Leonard, & J. S.Searles (Eds.).
Alcohol and the family: Research and clinical perspectives. New York: Guilford Press.
Merriam, SB 2009, Qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Morse, R. M., & Flavin, D. K. (1992).
The definition of alcoholism. Journal of the American Medical Association, 268, 1012-1014.
O’Farrell, T. J., (1989).
Marital and family therapy in the treatment of alcoholism treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 6 23-29.
O’Farrell, T. J. (1992).
Families and alcohol problems: An overview of treatment research. Journal of family Psychology, 5 (3 & 4), 339-359.
O’Farrell, T. J., & Feehan, M. (1999).
Alcoholism treatment and the family: Do family and individual treatments for alcoholic adults have preventive effects for children? Journal of Studies on Alcoholism, 13 125-129.
Pearlman, S. (1988).
Systems theory and alcoholism. In C.D. Chaudron & D.A. Wilkinson (Eds.), Theories on Alcoholism (pp. 289-324).
Toronto, Canada: Addiction Research Foundation.
Pickens, R. W., Svikis, D. S. McGue, M., Lykken, D., Heston, L. L., & Clayton, P. J. (1991).
Heterogeneity in the inheritance of alcoholism: A study of male and female twins. Archives of General Psychology, 48, 19-28.
Preli, R., Protinsky, H. & Cross, L. (1990).
Alcoholism and the family structure. Family Therapy, XVII, (1), 2-8.
Rotunda, R. J., Scherer, D. G., & Imm P. S. (1995).
Family systems and alcohol misuse: Research on the effects of alcoholism on the family functioning and effective family interventions. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 26 (1), 95-104.
Seilhamer, R. A. (1991).
Effects of Addiction on the Family. In D.C. Daley & M.S. Raskin (Eds.), Treating the chemically dependent and their families (pp. 172-194).
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Stanton, D. M., & Todd, T. C. (1982).
The family therapy of drug abuse and addiction. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Steiner, C. M. (1969).
The alcoholic game. Quarterly journal of studies of alcohol, 30, 920-938.
Steinglass, P. (1999).
Family therapy: Alcohol. In Galanter, M.& H. D. Kleber (Eds.), Textbook of substance abuse treatment (2nd ed.) (PP. 379-387).
Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
Steinglass, P., Bennett L. A., Wolin, S. J., & Reiss, D. (1987).
The alcoholic family. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Steinglass, P., Weiner, S., & Mendelson, J. H. (1971) A systems approach to alcoholism: A model and its clinical application. Archives of General Psychiatry, 24, 401-408. Substance abuse and medical health services. (1999).
1998 National household survey on drug abuse retrieved on June 30, 2000.
Statistical universe: http://www.samhsa.gov/PRESS/99/990818fs.htm
Valliant, G., & Milofsky, E. (1982).
The etiology of alcoholism: Causes, patterns, and paths to recovery. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Willig, C & Rogers, WS 2008, The SAGE handbook of qualitative research in psychology, Sage Publications Ltd, London.
