Cognitive Dissonance
How do human beings make decisions? What triggers a person to take action at any given point? These are all questions that I will
attempt to answer with my theoretical research into Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance, as well as many of the other related
theories. We often do not realize the psychological events that take place in our everyday lives. It is important to take notice of theories,
such as the balance theory, the congruency theory and the cognitive dissonance theory so that one’s self-persuasion occurs knowingly. As
psychologist and theorist gain a better understanding of Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory manipulation could occur more easily
than it already does in today’s society.
Leon Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory is very closely related to many of the consistency theories. The first of the major
consistency theories, the balance theory, was proposed by Fritz Heider (1946, 1958) and was later revised by Theodore Newcomb (1953)
(Larson, 1995).
The Term Paper on Cognitive Dissonance Festinger Theory Decision
... in behavior. Cause and Effect - Cognitive Dissonance Paradigms and Revisions to Dr. Festinger's Original Theory How is cognitive dissonance theory tested? Research is gathered to determine ... review of Leon Festinger's -- A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, American Journal of Psychology, (1997). Aronson, E., 'Dissonance Theory: Progress and Problems,' Theories of Cognitive Consistency: A Sourcebook, ...
Heider and Newcomb’s theory was mostly looking at the interaction between two people (interpersonally) and the conflicts
that arose between them. When two people have conflicting opinions or tension is felt between another person, it is more likely
persuasion will occur. Because if no tension was felt between the two parties, or there were no conflicting opinions there would be no
need to persuade each other. If you think about it persuasion occurs only because there is tension between two facts, ideas or people.
Charles Larson writes in his book, Persuasion, Reception and Responsibility, “another approach to the consistency theory is
congruency theory, by Charles Osgood and Percy Tennenbaum (1955)” (p.82).
This theory suggest that we want to have balance in our
lives and there is a systematic way to numerically figure it out. When two attitudes collide we must strive to strike a balance between
the two attitudes. The balance varies depending on the intensity we feel about each attitude and our pre-disposed positions concerning
the attitude. We either have a favorable , neutral or unfavorable opinion concerning ideas. When two attitudes collide we will attempt to
downgrade the favorable position and upgrade the unfavorable position so that we feel a balance. For example, suppose someone thought
of Mel Gibson as a good role model. Later on they come to find out Mel Gibson does not like football. If the person was to like both
football and Mel Gibson one of three things would happen: 1) The individual would downgrade their opinion of Mel Gibson, or 2)
downgrade football, or 3) downgrade both. The action taken would create psychological consistency in one’s mind. These theories are
very interesting and have been quite researched, but none more so than Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance.
Leon Festinger’s theory, unlike the others I have described, deal with quantitative aspects, as well as qualitative. That’s what is so
different and revolutionary about Festinger’s theory. Robert Wicklund and Jack Brehm (1976), in their book Perspectives on Cognitive
The Term Paper on Cognitive Dissonance Theory Task Festinger
... F. , (1997) Double forced compliance and cognitive dissonance theory. Journal of Social Psychology, v 137 n ... a meal. But the dissonance theory is applicable to much bigger social opinions than smoking, for ... was derived from the hypothesis that people will rationalize negative behavior by replacing ... that if a person changes certain cognitions in order to minimize dissonance, even more behavioral ...
Dissonance, write,” Most notably, the original statement of dissonance theory included propositions about the resistance-to-change of
cognitions and about the proportion of cognitions that are dissonant, both of which allowed powerful and innovative analyses of
psychological situations (p.1).
The term “dissonance” refers to the relation between two elements. When two elements do not fit together
they are considered dissonant. Cognitive dissonance can be broken down into a number of elements. As Brehm and Cohen (1962) write,
“A dissonant relationship exist between two cognitive elements when a person possesses one which follows the obverse of another that
he possesses. A person experiences dissonance, that is, a motivational tension, when he (or she) has cognitions among which there are one
or more dissonant relationships” (p.4).Cognitive dissonance can occur intrapersonally as well as between two or more people.
With individual cognitive dissonance the individual longs for consistency within their own mind. Second, there exist dissonance
between two or more people. This occurs when two people have differing opinions about a particular issue. This phenomenon may have
something to do with varying degrees of knowledge about the issue or different belief systems being enacted. An example of this can be
seen by taking a look at the cultures of the West versus cultures of the East. Cultures of the East value loyalty and honor. Cultures of the
West have different value systems that often collide with those of the East. Between two parties, dissonance may arise from: (1) logical
inconsistency; (2) because of cultural mores: (3) because of a specific opinion; and (4) because of past experience. To reduce cognitive
dissonance a person can either reduce the dissonant cognition, or its relative importance can be reduced (Wicklund and Brehm, 1976,
p.5).
Although the theory assumes that dissonance will be eliminated or reduced, only the thought about taking action to do so is a given.
The means employed by any given individual to meet these ends is still open to speculation. Action taken depends solely on the many
The Essay on Compare and contrast Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development in children
This essay will compare Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development in children. Also, show the differences between the two psychologist’s theories. Thus, by showing their similarities like in language and adaptation theories. Further, differences like Piaget’s theory on cognitive developmental stages and the schemas which are build to learn or accommodate new words or things. ...
variables involved, such as ego involvement, commitment, past experiences and so on. We all react differently to dissonant cognitions
that we are confronted with. My research attempts to examine the different reactions that people have had to different opinions I have
declared which involve them heavily. The area I have chosen to look at is the habits which many of my close friends engage in: smoking.
This is often a difficult topic to discuss because it is an addictive habit and very personal to many people. Full well knowing these facts,
I attempted to delve in the minds of my friends and put many of the theories afore mentioned to use in the practical world.
To undertake my research project I observed my friends in their everyday routines. I chose to attempt to persuade many of my friends
to stop smoking. While attempting to undertake this momentous task I observed many of the consistency theories, especially Festinger’s
theory of cognitive-dissonance. The research method that was used was first hand observation. You could say that I was undertaking a
form of ethnographic research. Most of the time I had to become an active member of the persuasion process, or the subject of smoking
possibly might not have been talked about. The context I chose was that of my friends at home. All of the participants in the study
did not know I was logging their behavior for later use in this research paper. Either myself and/or my friends would be active
participants in the persuasion process. The basic premise of the cognitive-dissonance theory is that when two pieces of information do not
follow each other we will experience some form of psychological tension, which we will attempt to reduce in some way. Often times,
according to Leon Festinger, people attempt to reduce cognitive dissonance whenever possible (Gleitman, 1983, p.12).
I noticed many
times that my friends were very interested in the topic of quitting their habit, and some at times took the issue personally. When people
The Essay on Theories of Cognitive Development by Piaget and Vygotsky
Jean Piaget’s and Lev Semionovich Vygotsky’s theories on cognitive development both play a significant role in addressing the intellectual growth of children (Lain, 2006). Psychologists and educators alike, rely on these theories in constructing the standards by which children are being brought up and taught today. Essentially, cognitive development is the process by which our intellectual ability ...
are personally involved with an issue, much like the use of tobacco, they are much more attentive to the issue (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981, p.
847).
For example, on 3/31/96 I told my three friends that I was concerned about how much they had been smoking recently. On the average
they are smoking 20 cigarettes a day. One of the girls immediately retaliated with the statement that ” her grandmother smoked for
nearly all of her life and she is in good health.” In this particular instance we can see the basic premise of the consistency theories at
work. The girl who said this statement likes me. She also enjoys smoking. When I made the statement that I was concerned with the
levels of tobacco consumption she disregarded my opinion by using past experiences as evidence to back her point. She is a friend so I
assume she somewhat values my opinion, but she upgraded her opinion of smoking and downgraded my opinion. She experienced some
form of dissonance when I stated my opinion. She reduced her dissonance and thus was in balance. This is where Festinger’s theory of
cognitive dissonance attempts to rationalize her behavior.
The other consistency theories do not recognize the degree to which the dissonance exist. If you were to not use Festinger’s model,
most likely you would have assumed that my opinion would have changed her attitude and actions. After all, I did have a contradictory
opinion that did not follow hers, and dissonance was felt. That’s what is missing from the balance theory and the congruency theory:
“latitudes of attitude”. This theory, unlike many others, must factor in the human psyche as a variable. The persuasion process did not
occur in this case because my friends attitude towards not smoking was so anti-quitting, that it might be impossible to change. You
cannot think of this theory in regards to machines you must look at it from the human perspective.
Another example of observable cognitive-dissonance occurred on 4/7/96. The same three friends and myself were watching television.
The Essay on Piaget And Cognitive Development Theory
Acquiring object permanence: AIM: Piaget wanted to find out at what age children acquire object permanence. METHOD: o Piaget hid a toy under a blanket whilst the child was watching, and observed whether or not the child searched for the hidden toy. o Searching for the hidden toy was evidence of object permanence. o Piaget assumed that that the child could only search for a hidden toy if they had a ...
An anti-smoking campaign sponsored by the American Red Cross came on the television. Various facts about the amount of people that
die every year from smoking and statistics about the amount of Americans with lung cancer were shared. I asked the girls what they
thought about the information. They all agreed that it could happen to them, but they hoped it did not. In this case, I believe dissonance
was created by exposure to information. The girls did not like the information and downplayed its validity. Not one of the girls stood
up and said, “I am going to quit smoking today, I am really at risk of getting lung cancer!” Once again personal involvement was a
given, and once again no action was taken. The girls feel to strong about smoking and refuse to quit. We must ask ourselves what a
solution to this problem could be? Why is it that smokers, in the face of grave danger, refuse to reduce dissonance by acting out their
urge to quit smoking?
The cognitive-dissonance theory is a part of our everyday lives, whether we realize it or not. When we are presented with view points
or opinions that differ from our own often times we feel dissonance. We, as human beings, are always striving to keep our lives in
balance. Often a balance in our psyche requires that we not heed the warnings of things to come. As I have shown, cognitive-dissonance
is utilized to avoid taking action.
As many theorist have stated cognitive dissonance does create an internal conflict that causes someone to take action. In the case of
smokers, I must regrettably report that smoking is vary rarely avoided, even with dissonance in full effect. Smokers, when presented
with hard core data showing a decline in health due to smoking, refuse to head warning. This is evident with all of the “guaranteed”
products to help people stop smoking. First there was “The Patch” and now the consumers are intrigued with products, such as
The Essay on Banning Smoking Smoke Smokers Places
Please Take Your Butt Outside "A smoking section in a bar or a restaurant is like having a peeing section in a public swimming pool, the pee just like the smoke will spread, and there is no way of escaping it," said an anonymous author. Smoking affects many people's lives each and everyday. For example, I can not even count the times that I have been in a restaurant in a "non-smoking section" and ...
Niccorrest Gum. Apparently no matter how much dissonance is felt and to what degree it is felt does not matter. Therefore, it may not be
possible to get rid of dissonance or even to reduce it materially by changing one’s behavior or feeling.
The research I have conducted supports my claim that it is nearly impossible to change the actions of smokers even though massive
amounts of cognitive dissonance are felt. I believe that many of the people being observed reduced the overall magnitude of dissonance
by adding new cognitive elements. No matter how much dissonance is felt, the smoker will always find elements that are consonant
(agreeable) with the fact of smoking. The will power of individuals feeling as though they have to have smoking in their everyday lives
is, often times, far to powerful for dissonance to overcome. Perhaps research such as mine can be useful to further research into the area
of dissonance and the use of tobacco. Much work still needs to be done in this area. We see so many people dying from lung cancer.
Something must be done. Perhaps looking at effective methods of the use of cognitive dissonance can be helpful in this arena.
