Heublein, Inc. , develops, manufactures, and markets consumer food and beverage products domestically and internationally. The business of Heublein, Inc. , their sales revenue, and some of their better known products are shown in Figure 1. Highlights of Figure 1 include: The four major businesses (“Groups”) use different manufacturing plants, equipment, and processes to produce their products. In the Spirits Group large, continuous-process bottling plants are the rule; in the Food Service and Franchising Group, small fast food restaurants are the “manufacturing plants.
” The amount of spending for capital projects and support varies greatly among the Groups, as would be expected from the differences in the magnitude of sales revenues. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04. htm 1/3 3/26/13 Case: A project management and Control System for Capital Projects Figure 1: Heiblein, Inc. (fiscal 1981) The engineering departments of the Groups have responsibility for operational planning and control of capital projects, a common feature of the Groups.
However, the differences among the Groups are reflected in differences in the sizes of the engineering departments and their support services. Similarly, financial tracking support varies from full external support to self-maintained records. Prior to the implementation of the Project Management and Control System (PM&C) described in this paper, the capital project process was chiefly concerned with the financial justification of the projects, as shown in Figure 2. Highlights include: A focus on cost-benefit analysis. Minimal emphasis on execution of the projects; no mechanism to assure that non-financial results were achieved.
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In the late 1970s the following factors focused attention on the execution weaknesses of the process: Some major projects went over budget. The need for optimal utilization of capital funds intensified since depreciation legislation was not keeping pace with the inflationary rise in costs. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04. htm 2/3 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects Figure 2: Capital projest progress prior to PM&C. Responding to these factors, Heublein’s corporate management called for a program to improve execution of capital projects by implementing PM&C.
Responsibility for this program was placed with the Corporate Facilities and Manufacturing Department, which, in addition to reviewing all Capital Appropriation Requests, provided technical consulting services to the corporation. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04. htm 3/3 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F. Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study Program Design Project Plan 1. Introduction 2. Project Objectives
3. Project/Program Structures 4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Feasibility Study Lacking specialized expertise in project management, the Director of Facilities and Manufacturing Planning decided to use a consultant in the field. Interviewing of three consultants was undertaken to select one who had the requisite knowledge, compatibility with the style and goals of the firm, and the ability to communicate to all levels and types of managers.
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The latter requirement was important because of the diversity of the engineering department structures and personnel involved. The first author was selected as the consultant. With the consultant selected, an internal program manager for PM&C was selected. The deferral of this choice until after selection of the consultant was deliberate, to allow for development of interest and enthusiasm among candidates for this position and so that both the selected individual and the selection committee would have a clear picture of the nature of the program.
A program manager was chosen from the corporate staff (the second author).
Having the key staff in place, ground rules were established as follows: The PM&C program would be developed internally to tailor it to the specific needs of the Groups. A “canned” or packaged system would limit this flexibility, which was deemed essential in this application of project management principles. The directors of the engineering departments of each of the Groups were to be directly involved in both the design and implementation of the PM&C system in total and for their particular Group.
This would assure the commitment to its success that derives from ownership and guarantees that those who know the needs best determine the nature of the system. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04a. htm 1/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects To meet the above two ground rules, a thorough fundamental education in the basic principles of project management would be given to all involved in the system design. The emphasis was to be project planning as opposed to project control.
The purpose of PM&C was to achieve better performance on projects, not catch mistakes after they have occurred. Success was the goal, rather than accountability or identification of responsibility for failure. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04a. htm 2/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F. Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study Program Design Project Plan 1.
Introduction 2. Project Objectives 3. Project/Program Structures 4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Program Design The option of defining a uniform PM&C system, to be imposed on all engineering departments by corporate mandate was rejected. The diversity of projects put the weight in favor of individual systems, provided planning and control was such that success of the projects was facilitated.
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The advantage to corporate staff of uniform planning and reporting was given second place to accommodation of the unique needs of each Group and the wholehearted commitment of each engineering manager to the effective use of the adopted system. Thus, a phased implementation of PM&C within Heublein was planned in advance. These phases were: Phase 1. Educational overview for engineering department managers. A three-day seminar with two toplevel educational objectives: (1) comprehension by participants of a maximal set of project management principles and (2) explanation of the corporate
objectives and recommended approach for any PM&C system. Despite some expressed initial concern, the response to this session was positive. It was correctly perceived as the first step in a sincere attempt by corporate management to develop a jointly defined PM&C system that would be useful to the managers of projects, rather than to satisfy a corporate reporting need. Phase II. PM&C system design. A “gestation period” of three weeks was deliberately introduced between Phases I and II to allow for absorption, discussion, and review of the project management principles and objectives by the engineering department managers.
At the end of this period a session was called for the explicit purpose of defining the system. The session was chaired by the consultant, a deliberate choice to achieve the “lightning rod” effect whereby any negative concern was directed to an outsider. Also, the consultant-as an outsider-could criticize and comment in ways that should not be done by the engineering department managers who will have long-term working relationships among each other. It was agreed in advance that a consensus www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04b. htm 1/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects
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would be sought to the greatest possible extent, avoiding any votes on how to handle particular issues which leaves the “nay” votes feeling that their interests have been overridden by the majority. If consensus could not be achieved, then the issue would be sidestepped to be deferred for later consideration; if sufficiently important then a joint solution could be developed outside the session without the pressure of a fixed closing time. The dynamics of this design session included the development of consensus statements which were displayed on overhead transparencies to be worked into shape.
As soon as this was acceptable to the Group as a whole, one of two attending stenographers would record the agreement, leave the room and return later with a typed version for group consideration. The use of two group stenographers assured that one was always in attendance. The enthusiasm expressed by the engineering department managers for this meeting was high. Phase III. Project plan development. The output of Phase II (the set of consensus conclusions) represented both guidelines and specific conclusions concerning the nature of a PM&C system.
Recognizing that the PM&C program will be viewed as a model project and that it should be used as such, serving as an example of what is desired, the program manager prepared a project plan for the PM&C program. The remainder of this paper is primarily concerned with the discussion of this plan, both as an example of how to introduce a PM&C system and how to make a project plan. The plan discussed in this paper and illustrated in Figures 3 to 11 is the type of plan that is now required before any capital project may be submitted to the approval process at Heublein.
Phase IV. Implementation. With the plan developed in Phase III approved, it was possible to move ahead with implementation. Implementation was in accordance with the plan discussed in the balance of this paper. Evaluation of the results was considered a part of this implementation. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04b. htm 2/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F. Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study
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Program Design Project Plan 1. Introduction 2. Project Objectives 3. Project/Program Structures 4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Project Plan A feature of the guidelines developed by the engineering managers in Phase II was that a “menu” of component parts of a project plan was to be established in the corporate PM&C system, and that elements of this menu were to be chosen to fit the situational or corporate tracking requirements.
The menu is: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Introduction Project Objectives Project/Program Structure Project/Program Costs Network Schedule & Resource Allocation Organization and Accountability Control System Milestones or Project Subdivisions In major or critical projects, the minimal set of choices from the menu as specified by corporate staff (the definition of a “major” or “critical” project is a part of the PM&C procedure).
For “routine” projects, the choice from the menu is left to the project manager.
In the PM&C plan, items 6 and 7, Schedule and Resource Allocation, were combined into one section for reasons which will be described as part of the detailed discussions of the individual sections which follow. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c. htm 1/1 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F. Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study Program Design Project Plan 1. Introduction 2. Project Objectives 3. Project/Program Structures
4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Introduction In this PM&C system, the Introducton is an executive summary, with emphasis on the justification of the project. This can be seen from the PM&C Program Introduction shown in Figure 3. It is to the advantage of everyone concerned with a project to be fully aware of the reasons for its existence. It is as important to the technicians as it is to the engineers or the corporate financial department.
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When the project staff clearly comprehends the reason for the project’s existence it is much easier to enlist and maintain their support and wholehearted efforts. In the Heublein PM&C system, it is expected that the introduction section of a project plan will include answers to these questions: What type of project is involved? What is the cost-benefit relationship? What are the contingency plans? Why is it being done this way (that is, why were alternatives rejected)? Figure 3 not only illustrates this approach, but is the executive summary for the Heublein PM&C system.
www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c1. htm 1/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects Figure 3: Introduction to PM&C program project plan. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c1. htm 2/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F. Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study Program Design Project Plan 1. Introduction 2. Project Objectives
3. Project/Program Structures 4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Project Objectives Both anecdotal and research inputs have established the importance of clearly stated objectives: von Clauswitz’ “Principles of the Objective: A clearly defined, attainable goal” (On War, the Modern library, 1943), holds for projects in business. Goals for a project at Heublein must be stated in terms of deliverable items.
To so state a project objective forces the definition of a clear, comprehensible, measurable and tangible objective. Often, deliverable items resulting from a project are documents. In constructing a residence, is the deliverable item “the house” or is it “the certificate of occupancy”? In the planning stages of a project (which can occur during the project as well as at the beginning), asking this question is as important as getting the answer. Also, defining the project in terms of the deliverables tends to reduce the number of items which are forgotten.
Thus, the Heublein PM&C concept of objectives can be seen to be similar to a “statement of work” and is not meant to encompass specifications (detailed descriptions of the attributes of a deliverable item) which can be included as appendices to the objectives of the project. Figure 4 shows the objectives stated for the Heublein PM&C program. It illustrates one of the principles set for objective statement: that they be hierarchically structured, starting with general statements and moving to increasingly more detailed particular statements.
When both particular and general objectives are defined, it is imperative that there be a logical connection; the particular must be in support of the general. Ambiguity and confusion at this point is not unusual and where they exist, they are a source of considerable conflict among client, project management, and staff. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c2. htm 1/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects Figure 4: Objectives of PM&C program. A project (the PM&C Program) satisfying the broadly expressed needs of the Introduction (Figure 3) is more precisely defined in Figure 4.
Here we see first that the primary thrust of this system is General Objectives item number 3, to provide Group personnel with the ability to do their jobs better. We believe it is important that these general objectives, which were set in a Corporate Management Committee meeting, are not concerned with assigning blame or setting the stage for tighter corporate control, but are in fact positive goals which not only answer desires of Corporate and Group management, but also resolve issues often raised by the operational level personnel.
The specific objectives follow the general objectives in Figure 4, which is largely in accord with our own standards for expression of specific objectives in terms of deliverables. It is now apparent that this could have been carried further; but the success of the program supports the view that these objectives were good enough for their purpose. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c2. htm 2/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F.
Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study Program Design Project Plan 1. Introduction 2. Project Objectives 3. Project/Program Structures 4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Project/Program Structure Having a definition of deliverables, the project manager needs explicit structuring of the project to: Relate the specific objectives to the general. Define the elements which comprise the deliverables.
Define the activities which yield the elements and deliverables as their output. Show the hierarchical relationship among objectives, elements, and activities. The WBS is the tool used to meet these needs. While the WBS may be represented in either indentured (textual) or tree (graphical) formats, the graphic tree format has the advantage of easy comprehension at all levels. The tree version of the WBS also has the considerable advantage that entries may be made in the nodes (“boxes”) to indicate charge account numbers, accountable staff, etc.
Figure 5 is the WBS for the PM&C Program, showing the nature of the WBS in general and the structure of the PM&C Program project in particular. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c3. htm 1/3 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects Figure 5: Project structure. At this point we can identify the component elements and the activities necessary to achieve them. A hierarchical numbering system was applied to the elements of the WBS, which is always a convenience.
The 22 Design Phase Reports (2100 series in Figure 5) speak for themselves, but it is important to note that this WBS is the original WBS: All of these reports, analyses, and determinations were defined prior to starting the program and there were no requirements for additional items. In this area, there was no change of scope problem because the cooperation of all involved functions was obtained at the start of the program. The breadth of the definition task for this company, which does not contract or subcontract to public agencies (with their own special www.
wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c3. htm 2/3 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects requirements), gives some idea of the considerations that must be taken into account when setting up a PM&C System. The rest of the WBS is self-explanatory and it is hoped that it can serve as a starting point for others wishing to implement similar programs. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c3. htm 3/3 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE
A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F. Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study Program Design Project Plan 1. Introduction 2. Project Objectives 3. Project/Program Structures 4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Project/Program Costs The WBS provides a listing of the tasks to be performed to achieve the project objectives; with only the WBS in hand it is possible to assemble a preliminary project estimate.
The estimates based only on the WBS are preliminary because they reflect not only uncertainty (which varies considerably among types of projects), but because the allocation of resources to meet schedule difficulties cannot be determined until both the network and the schedule and resource evaluations have been completed. However, at this time the project planner can begin to hierarchically assemble costs for use at any level. First the lowest level activities of work (sometimes called “work packages”) can be assigned values.
These estimates can be aggregated in accordance with the WBS tree structure to give higher level totals. At the root of the tree there is only one element-the project-and the total preliminary estimated cost is available. Figure 6 shows the costs as summarized for the PM&C program plan. This example is supplied to give the reader an idea of the nature of the costs to be expected in carrying out such a PM&C program in this type of situation. Since a project-oriented cost accounting system does not exist, out-of-pocket costs are the only incremental charges.
Any organization wishing to cost a similar PM&C program will have to do so within the framework of the organizational approach to costing indirect labor. As a guide to such costs, it should be noted that in them Heublein PM&C Program, over 80 percent of the costs-both out-of-pocket and indirect-were in connection with the General Training (WBS code 3000).
www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c4. htm 1/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects Figure 6: Program Costs.
Seminars were limited to two and two-and-a-half days to assure that the attendees perceived the educational process as efficient, tight, and not unduly interfering with their work; it was felt that it was much better to have them leaving with a feeling that they would have liked more rather than the opposite. Knowing the number of attendees, it is possible to determine the labor-days devoted to travel and seminar attendance; consultant/lecturer’s fees can be obtained (expect preparation costs) and the incidentals (travel expenses, subsistence, printing, etc.
) are easily estimated. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c4. htm 2/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F. Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study Program Design Project Plan 1. Introduction 2. Project Objectives 3. Project/Program Structures 4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Network
The PM&C system at Heublein requires networks only for major projects, but encourages their use for all projects. The project manager is allowed the choice of whatever type of network (activity-on-node or event-onnode) he or she prefers to use. For this reason, all educational activities provided instruction in both types of network. Figure 7 shows a segment of the network for the PM&C Plan. All the usual principles of network creation and analysis (for critical path, for example) may be applied by the project manager to the extent that it facilitates planning, implementation, and control.
Considerable emphasis was placed on network creation and analysis techniques in the educational phases of the PM&C Program because the network is the basis of the scheduling methods presented, is potentially of great value and is one of the hardest concepts to communicate. Figure 7: Network of PM&C program. In the Heublein PM&C system, managerial networks are desired-networks which the individual project managers will use in their own management process and which the staff of the project can use to self-direct where appropriate. For this reason, the view toward the network is that no one network should exceed 50 nodes.
The top-level network represents the highest level of aggregation. Each activity on that network may well represent someone else’s next lower level network consisting of not more than 50 nodes; any activity on that second-level network may represent someone else’s third-level network consisting of not more than 50 nodes; and so on. Networks with hundreds of nodes are to be avoided because of the difficulty of reading them and www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c5. htm 1/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects
also because of the negative attitudes toward formal network planning methods generated by experiences with huge (over 5000 nodes, for example) networks in the past. This is not to say that there are not thousands of activities possible in a Heublein project, but that at the working managerial level, each manager or project staff person responsible for a networked activity is expected to work from a single network of a scope that can be easily comprehended. It is not an easy task to aggregate skillfully to reduce network size, but the exercise of this discipline has value in planning and execution in its own right.
The network shown reflects the interdependencies of activities for Heublein’s PM&C Program; they are dependent on the design of the Program and the needs of the organization. Each organization must determine them for themselves. But what is important is that institution of a PM&C Program be planned this way. There is a great temptation in such programs to put all activities on one path and not to take advantage of parallel activities and/or not to see just what is the critical path and to focus efforts along it. Even where there is no special urgency in completion, it is important that all parts of the program work smoothly.
If the PM&C Program team cannot assure that all necessary materials are on hand when the seminar attendees arrive to be instructed in methods of assuring timely completion of projects, the PM&C system will be viewed with great cynicism. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c5. htm 2/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F. Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study Program Design Project Plan 1. Introduction 2. Project Objectives 3. Project/Program Structures
4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Schedule and Resource Allocation The network defines the mandatory interdependency relationships among the tasks on a project; the schedule is the realization of the intent of the project manager, as it shows when the manager has determined that tasks are to be done. The schedule is constrained in a way that the network is not, for the schedule must reflect calendar limitations (vacations, holidays, plant and vendor shutdowns, etc.
) and also the limitations on resources. It is with the schedule that the project manager can develop the resource loadings and it is the schedule which ultimately is determined by both calendar and resource constraints. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c6. htm 1/1 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F. Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study Program Design Project Plan 1. Introduction 2. Project Objectives 3.
Project/Program Structures 4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Organization and Accountability Who is responsible for what? Without clear, unambiguous responses to this question there can be no assurance that the task will be done. In general, committees do not finish projects and there should be one organizational unit responsible for each element in the work breakdown structure and one person in that organizational unit who holds final responsibility.
Thus responsibility implies a single name to be mapped to the task or element of the WBS, and it is good practice to place the name of the responsible entity or person in the appropriate node on the WBS. However, accountability may have multiple levels below the top level of complete responsibility. Some individuals or functions may have approval power, veto power without approval power, others may be needed for information or advice, etc. Often, such multilevel accountability crosses functional and/or geographical boundaries and hence communication becomes of great importance.
A tool which has proved of considerable value to Heublein where multilevel accountability and geographical dispersion of project staff is common is the “accountability matrix. ” An accountability matrix for a part of the PM&C Program project is shown in Figure 8. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c7. htm 1/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects Figure 8: Accountability matrix for PM&C program. The accountability matrix reflects considerable thought about the strategy of the program.
In fact, one of its great advantages is that it forces the originator (usually the project manager) to think through the process of implementation. Some individuals must be involved because their input is essential. For example, all engineering managers were essential inputs to establish the exact nature of their needs. On the other hand, some individuals or departments are formally involved to enlist their support, even though a satisfactory program could be defined without them. www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c7. htm 2/2 3/26/13
Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects CASE A PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CAPITAL PROJECTS Herbert F. Spirer and A. G. Hulvey Table of Contents Introduction Feasibility Study Program Design Project Plan 1. Introduction 2. Project Objectives 3. Project/Program Structures 4. Project/Program Costs 5. Network 6. Schedule & Resource Allocation 7. Organization & Accountability 8. Control System 9. Milestones or Project Subdivisions Summary Control System The basic loop of feedback for control is shown in Figure 9. Figure 9: The Basic feed back loop of control.
This rationale underlies all approaches to controlling projects. Given that a plan (or budget) exists, we then must www. wiley. com/college/projectmgt/meredith/cases/page04c8. htm 1/2 3/26/13 Case: A Project Management and Control System for Capital Projects know what is performance (or actual); a comparison of the two may give a variance. If a variance exists, then the cause of the variance must be sought. Note that any variance is a call for review; as experienced project managers are well aware, underspending or early completions may be as unsatisfactory as overspending and late completions.
The PM&C program did not involve large purchases, or for that matter, many purchases. Nor were large numbers of people working on different tasks to be kept track of and coordinated. These reasons of scale made it possible to control the PM&C Program through the use of Gantt conventions, using schedule bars to show plan and filling them in to show performance. Progress was tracked on a periodic basis, once a week. Figure 10: Control system. Figure 10 shows the timing of the periodic reviews for
