human development is the study of all aspects of constancy & change throughout the lifespan. Theories lend structure & meaning to the scientific study of development. This chapter provides an overview of philosophical & theoretical approaches to the study of human development from medieval to modern times & reviews majore research strategies used to study human behavior & development.
When compared & contrasted, historical philosophies & contemporary theories raise 3 basic questions about what ppl are like & how they develop:
Is development a continuous or discontinuous process?
Is there one course of development or many?
Are genetic or enviromental factors more important in determinging development?
Although some theories take extreme positions on these issues, many modern ones include elements from both sides. The lifespan perspective recognizes that great complexity exists in human change & the factors that underlie it.
Research methods commonly used to study development include systematic observation, self-reports, clinical or case studies of single individuals, & ethnographies of the life circumstances of specific groups of ppl. Investigators of human development generally choose either a correlational or an experimental research design. To study how their subjects change over time, they apply special developmental research strategies–longitudinal, cross-sectional, & longitudinal-sequential designs. Each method & design has both strengths & limitations. Conducting research w/ human subjects also poses special ethical dilemmas.
The Research paper on Pros and Cons of Using a Case Study in Research
Case studies are bounded as they are reflective of a particular program, event, individual, or activity being studied at a particular place and time. Thus, Merriam (1988) described a case study as “an examination of a specific phenomena such as a program, an event, a person, a process, an institution, or social group” (p. 9). Over the years, case study research has evolved from its anthropological ...
Theory & research are the cornerstones of the field of human development. These components are helping us understand & alleviate many pressing problems faced by children & adults in today’s world.
*~Learning Objectives~*
(Page Number are in parenthesis)
Explain the importance of the terms interdisciplinary & applied as they define the field of development (5)
Explain the role of theories in understanding human development & describe 3 basic issues on which major theories take a stand (5-7).
Describe factors that sparked the emergence of the lifespan perspective & explain the 4 assumptions that make up this point of view (7-12).
Trace historical influences on modern theories of human development, from medieval times through the early 20th C (13-15).
Describe theoretical perspectives that influenced human development research in the mid- 20th C, & cite the contributions & limitations of each (15-20).
Describe recent theoretical perspectives on human development, noting the contributions of major theorists (20-25).
Identify the stand that each contemporary theory takes on the 3 basic issues presented earlier in this chapter (26).
Describe the research methods commonly used to study human development, citing the strengths & limitations of each (27-30).
Contrast correlational & experimental research designs; cite the
strengths/limitations of each (31-34).
Describe 3 research designs for studying development & cite the strengths & limitations of each (34-37).
Discuss ethical issues related to lifespan research (37-39).
*~Study Questions~*
I. Human Development as a Scientific, Applied, & Interdisciplinary Field (5):
The Coursework on Development Theory
This coursework tends to analyze the case why Sally, a certain researcher, seems to lose her working will which caused her to be dull on her job. This paper discusses the applicable development theory which could explain the reason behind her said behavior towards her job. The development perspective or theory which could be applied to Sally’s case is the Contextual theory. Contextual theory ...
Human development* is an interdisciplinary field. Explain what this means.
It grew through the combined efforts of ppl from many field of study. Because of the need for solutions to everyday problems at all ages, researchers from psychology, sociology, anthropology, & biology joined forces in research w/ professionals from education, family studies, medicine, public health, & social service, to name just a few.
II. Basic Issues (5-7):
What are the 3 elements of a good theory*?
It describes a behavior
It explains how & why there is that certain behavior
It predicts the consequences of this behavior
Cite 2 reasons why theories are important to the study of human development.
They guide & give meaning to what we see & provide organizing frameworks for our observations.2nd–theories that are verified by research provide a sound basis for practical action. Once a theory helps us understand development, we are in a much better position to know what to do in our efforts to improve the welfare & treatment of children.
T/F: Theories differ from opinion & belief in that they are subject to scientific verification.
True
Match each theoretical approach w/ the appropriate description:
Multiple courses of development~ Considers human development in light of distinct contexts* (stages).
Single course of development~ Considers development to be universal across individuals & across cultures.
Continuous* development~ Views development as a process of gradually building on preexisting skills.
Discontinuous* develoment~ Views development as a progression through a series of distinct stages*.
Nature~ Views heredity as the most important influence on development.
Nurture~ Views environment as the most important influence on development (nature-nurture controversy*)
III. The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced Point of View (7-12):
T/F: Most modern theories of development take a strong position on controversial issues such as the nature-nurture debate.
True.
Explain how gains in average life expectancy have altered our view of human development.
The changing population awakened researchers to the idea that development is lifelong. Due to improvements in nutrition, sanitation, & medical knowledge, the average life expectancy gained more in the 20th C than in the preceding 5,000 yrs.
The Essay on Jean Piaget Development Children Who Are At A Certain Stage
Conservation Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who did work on the development of intelligence in children. His studies have had a major impact on the fields of psychology and education. Piaget liked to call himself a genetic epistemologist (is a person who studies the origins of human knowledge) His theories led to more advanced work in child psychology. Piaget does work involving both ...
Describe the lifespan perspective* noting 4 theories that make up this view of development.
Development as lifelong
Development as multidimensional & multidirectional
Development as highly plastic
Development as embedded in mutiple contexts
List the 8 periods of the human development covered in your text.
Prenatal
Infancy & toddlerhood
Early childhood
Middle childhood
Adolescence
Early adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood
Cite the 3 broad domains of development in which change takes place across the lifespan.
Physical Development: Changes in body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of body systems, perceptual & motor capacitites, & physical health. Cognitive Development: Changes in intellectual abilities, including attention, memory, academic & everyday knowledge, problem solving, imagination, creativity, & language.Social & Emotional Development: Changes in emotional communication, self-understanding, knowledge about other ppl, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, & moral reasoning & behavior.
Explain how human development is both multidimensional & multidirectional.
Multidimensional: affected by an intricate blend of biological, psychological, & social forces.
Multidirectional: 1st–development isn’t limited to improved performance. Instead, at all periods, it is a joint expression of growth & decline. Although gains are especially evident early in life, & losses during the final years, ppl of all ages can improve current skills & develop new skills, including ones that compensate for reduced functioning. 2nd–besides being multidirectional over time, change is multidirectional w/in the same domain of development.
T/F: Researchers stress that development is highly plastic at all ages. Briefly explain.
True – Evidence on plasticity makes it clear that aging isn’t an eventual “shipwreck,” as has often been assumed. Instead, the metaphor of a
The Essay on Speech Development Piaget Stage Theory
... stage of Piaget's Speech development is the pre-operational stage. This stage occurs from 2 – 7 years of age and in it children ... Theory Of Speech Development Essay, Research Piaget Theory Of Speech Development Piaget theory of Speech Development There are two classical theories of Speech development. ... of the adaptation techniques. We accommodate or change our schema to fit our observation. ...
“butterfly”–of metamorphosis & continued potential–provides a far more accurate picture of lifespan change. Still, development gradually becomes less plastic, as both capacity & opportunity for change are reduced.
Events that are strongly related to age & therefore fairly predictable in when they occur & how long they last are called Age -graded influences*.
Age-graded influences explain why ppl born around the same time tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from ppl born at other times. Provide 3 examples of such influences.
Most individuals walk shortly after their first birthday.
Acquire their native language during the pre-school years.
Reach puberty around ages 12-14.
What are nonnormative influences* .
Events that are irregular– they happen to just 1 or a few ppl & don’t follow a predictable timetable.
T/F: In contemporary adult development, nonnormative influences have become less powerful while age-graded influences have become more so.
False
T/F: The lifespan perspective emphasizes multiple potential pathways & outcomes of development.
True
IV. Biology & Environment: Resiliency(10-11):
What is resiliency*?
The ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development.
List/describe 4 factors that offer protection from damaging effects of stressful life events.
Personal Characteristics- A child’s biologically endowed characteristics can reduce exposure to risk or lead to experiences that compensate for early stressful events.
A Warm Parental Relationship- A close relationship w/ at least 1 parent who provides affection & assistance & introduces order & organization into the child’s life fosters resiliency.Social Support Outside the Immediate Family- A person outside the immediate family–a grandparent, teacher, or close friend–who forms a special relationship w/ the child can promote resiliency.A Strong Community- Opportunities to participate in community life increase the likelihood that older children & adolescents will overcome adversity.
V. Historical Foundations (13-15):
Explain the concept of preformationism* .
Once children emerged from infancy, they were regarded as miniature, already-formed adults.
The Essay on Child Development Theories 2
... (Heffner, 2004). Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development breaks down in eight stages throughout the human lifespan, and believes “personality is influenced by society and ... learning potential. Having knowledge about the development of a child and adolescent provides clues in understanding behavior and what is “normal,” or typical, ...
Describe the influence of Puritanism on child-rearing values/practices during the Reformation.
In the 16th C, a revised image of children sprang from the Puritan belief in original sin. Harsh, restrictive parenting practices were recommended as the most efficient means of taming the depraved child. Although punitiveness was the prevailing child-rearing philosophy, affection for their children prevented most Puritan parents from using extremely repressive measures. Instead, they tried to promote reason in their sons/daughters so they could tell right from wrong & resist temptation.
Describe (British philosopher) John Locke’s theory of tabula rasa*?
From Latin- “blank slate”. According to this idea, all kinds of experiences can shape a child’s character.
Summarize Locke’s stance on each of the 3 basic issues of human development:
Continuous; adult like behaviors are gradually built up.
Many courses of development & change at later ages due to new experiences.Nurture; the power of the environment to shape the child.
Explain (French philosopher) Jean Jacques Rousseau’s notion of children as noble savages*.
Naturally endowed w/ a sense of right & wrong & w/ an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth.
Cite 2 influential concepts included in Rousseau’s philosophy.
Stage, which we discussed earlier in this chapter. Maturation*–which refers to a genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth.
Describe some of the key differences in the theories put forth by Locke & Rousseau.
Unlike Locke, Rousseau saw children as determining their own destinies–He took a different stand on basic developmental issues; seeing development as a discontinuous, stagewise process that follows a single, unified course mapped out by nature.
What 3 areas of adult development did German philosopher John N. Tetens address?
The origins & extent of individual differences.
The degree to which behavior can be changed in adulthood.
The impact of historical eras on the life course.
Name 4 periods of human development identified by German philosopher Friedrich Carus.
The Term Paper on Graded unit development stage
... play. Piaget identified these stages of children’s development: Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years The child at this stage uses senses and ... behavior between them that go unnoticed in daily life are consciously acquired through play. Bruce Tina Bruce’s theory is a theory ... Vygotsky also referred to the development of social rules that form, for example, when children play house and adopt the ...
Childhood
Youth
Adulthood
Senescence
T/F: Tetens & Carus viewed aging not only as decline, but also as progression (14).
True
Explain the 2 principles emphasized in Darwin’s theory of evolution.
Natural selection–Certain species survived in particular environments because they have characteristics that fit w/ or adapted to their surroundings.
Survival of the fittest–Individuals w/in a species who best meet the survival requirements of the environment live long enough to reproduce & pass their more favorable characteristics to future generations.
Charles Darwin is generally regarded as the founder of the child study movement.
The Normative approach* uses age-related averages to show typical development.
Who constructed the 1st successful intelligence test?
French psychologist Alfred Binet & his colleague Theodore Simon.
The Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale is the translated version of this test, which was developed for American children.
VI. Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories (15-20):
T/F: The psychoanalytic perspective stresses understanding the unique life history of each person.
True
Summarize the basic tenants of the psychoanalytic perspective*.
Ppl move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts tween biological drives & social expectations.
The way these conflicts are resolved determines the individual’s ability to learn, to get along w/ others, & to cope w/ anxiety.
Freud’s Psychosexual theory* emphasized that how parents manage their child’s sexual & aggressive drives in the first few yrs of life is crucial for healthy personality development.
Name & briefly describe the 3 components of personality outlined in Freud’s theory.
The id, the largest portion of the mind, is the source of basic biological needs & desires.The ego–the conscious rational part of personality–emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses so they are discharged on appropriate objects at acceptable times & places.
Tween 3 & 6 yrs old, the superego (conscience) develops when parents insist that a child conform to the values of society.
Match the following stages of psychosexual development w/ the appropriate description.
Genital ~ Stage marked by mature sexuality.
Anal ~ Stage in which toilet training becomes a major issue tween parent & child.
Oral ~ Stage in which the infant desires sucking activities.
Latency ~ During this stage, sexual instincts die down.
Phallic ~ Stage in which the Oedipal & Electra conflicts take place.
Cite 2 contributions of Freud’s psychosexual theory.
It highlighted the importance of family relationships for children’s development.It was the first theory to stress the role of early experience.
Discuss some of the criticisms of Freud’s theory.
Only based on problems of sexually repressed, well-to-do adults, it didn’t apply in cultures differing from 19th C Victorian society.Freud had not studied children directly.
In what way did Erikson build upon & improve Freud’s theory?
Erikson’s first 5 stages parallel Freud’s stages, but Erikson added 3 adult stages.
Match each of Erikson’s stages w/ the appropriate description:
Industry vs. inferiority–resolution depends on the adult’s success at caring for other ppl & productive work.
Autonomy vs. shame & doubt–Resolution depends on parents granting the child reasonable opportunities for free choice.
Intimacy vs. isolation–the development of close relationships w/ others helps ensure resolution of this stage.
Identity vs. identity diffusion–the development of a sense of self & a sense of one’s place in society.
Basic trust vs. mistrust– resolution of this stage depends on a warm, loving relationship w/ the caregiver.
Generativity vs. stagnation–resolution depends on a child’s capacity for cooperation & productive work.
Initiative vs. guilt~ In this stage children experiment w/ adult roles through make believe play.
Ego integrity vs. despair ~ in this stage successful resolution involves reflecting on life’s accomplishments.
Why is psychoanalytic theory no longer in the mainstream of human develop. research?
Psychoanalytic theorists may have become isolated from the rest of the field because they were so strongly committed to the clinical approach that they failed to consider other methods. In addition, many psychoanalytic
ideas, such as psychosexual stages & ego functioning, are so vague that they are difficult or impossible to test empirically.
T/F: Behaviorism* focuses on the inner workings of the mind.
False
Skinner’s Operant conditioning theory states that behavior increased w/ reinforcers (praise)& decreased by punishment (disapproval)
Albert Bandura’s social learning theory* states children acquire both favorable & unfavorable behaviors through the process of modeling–imitation/observational learning.
Bandura’s, social learning approach, was revised to include the importance of cognition (thinking).
It is now referred to as social-cognitive approach. Explain this view.
Children gradually become more selective in what they imitate. From watching others engage in self-praise & self-blame & through feedback about the worth of their own actions, children develop personal standards for behavior & a sense of self-efficacy–the belief that their own abilities/characteristics will help them succeed.
What 2 procedures are combined in behavior modification* in order to eliminate undesirable behaviors & increase socially acceptable ones?
Modeling
Conditioning/ reinforcement
Discuss 2 limitations of behaviorism & social learning theory.
Too narrow a view of important environmental influences.
Underestimating ppl’s contributions to their own development.
Summarize the basic principles of Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory* .
Piaget didn’t believe that knowledge could be imposed on a child. Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate & explore their world.
Define Piaget’s notion of adaptation.
Just as the body adaptes w/ the environment, the mind develops to fit w/ (represent) the external world.
Children fix incorrect ideas, to achieve a balance tween internal structures & info in society.
Match each of Piaget’s stages w/ the appropriate description.
Sensorimotor–use of eyes, ears, & hands to explore the environment.
Preoperational–development of logical, organized reasoning skills.
Concrete operational–more complex thought w/ the capacity for abstract reasoning.
Formal operational–children develop the capacity for abstract thought.
Describe 2 major contributions of Piaget’s theory.
Stated that children are active learners whose minds consist of rich structures of knowledge.It encouraged the development of educational philosophies & programs that emphasize discovery learning & direct contact w/ the environment.
Describe 3 recent challenges to Piaget’s theory.
Challenged his theory that discovery learning fosters better development than adult teaching.Piaget’s stagewise account pays insufficient attention to social & cultural influences on development.Some theorists take issue w/ his conclusion that no major cognitive changes occur after adolescence.
VII. Recent Theoretical Perspectives (20-25):
Ethology* is the study of the adaptive, survival, value of behavior & its evolutionary history.
Name the 2 European zoologists who laid the modern foundations of ethology.
Konrad Lorenz
Niko Tinbergen
Contrast the notion of a critical period w/ that of a sensitive period*.
Critical period–a limited time span when a person is biologically prone to acquire adaptive behaviors.
Sensitive period–a time for certain capacities to emerge & environmental influences are important.
Explain how John Bowlby used the principles of ethology to understand the infant-caregiver relationship.
He argued that infant smiling, babbling, grasping, & crying are built-in social signals that encourage the parent to approach, care for, & interact w/ the baby. By keeping the mom near, these behaviors help ensure that the infant will be fed, protected from danger, & provided w/ the stimulation & affection necessary for healthy growth. The development of attachment in humans is a lengthy process involving changes in psychological structures that lead the baby to form a deep affectional tie w/ the caregiver.
Briefly explain what is studied in the field of evolutionary developmental psychology*.
It’s not just concerned w/ the biological basis of development. It is also interested in how individuals learn because learning lends flexibility & greater adaptiveness to behavior.
Cite one benefit of cross-cultural & multicultural research.
Helps us untangle the contributions of biological & environmental factors to the timing & diversity of ppls behaviors.
Explain the importance of social interaction according to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory*.
It focuses on how culture–the values, beliefs, customs, & skills of a social group–is transmitted to the next generation. Social interaction (cooperative dialogues w/ more knowledgeable members of society) is necessary for children to acquire the community’s ways of thinking & behaving.
Compare & contrast the theories of Piaget & Vygotsky.
Vygotsky agreed w/ Piaget that children are active, constructive beings. But unlike Piaget, Vygotsky viewed cognitive development as a socially mediated process–as dependent on support that adults & more mature peers provide as children try new tasks.
T/F: Because cultures select tasks for their members, individuals in every culture develop unique strengths not present in others.
True
Vygotsky’s stress on culture & social experience led him to neglect biological contributions
Briefly explain Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory*.
It see development from a complex system of relationships affected by multiple environments, from immediate settings of family/ school to cultural values/ programs.
Match each level of ecological systems theory w/ the appropriate description/example.
Exosystem* ~ The parent’s workplace.
Microsystem* ~ The child’s interaction w/ parents.
Mesosystem* ~ Relationship tween the child’s home & school.
Macrosystem* ~ The influence of cultural values.
Provide examples of factors in each system that can enhance development.
Microsystem: Bronfenbrenner emphasizes that we must keep in mind that all relationships are bidirectional. Adults affect children’s behavior but children’s biologically/socially influenced characteristics-their physical attributes, personalities, & capacities-also affect adults’ behavior. When these bidirectional interactions occur often over time, the have an enduring impact on development.
Mesosystem: A child’s academic progress depends not just on activities that take place in classrooms. It is also promoted by parent involvement in school life & the extent to which academic learning is carried into the home.
Exosystem: Flexible work schedules, paid maternity & paternity leave & sick leave for parents whose children are ill are ways that work settings can help rear children, &, indirectly, enhance the development of both adult &
child.
Macrosystem: In countries that require high-quality standards for child care & benefits for employed parents, children are more likely to have favorable experiences in their immediate settings.
Bronfenbrenner’s chrono- system* refers to temporal changes that affect development, such as the timing of the birth of a sibling.
T/F: In ecological systems theory, development is the interaction of environment & inner dispositions.
False
VIII. Comparing & Evaluating Theories (26-27):
Identify the stand that each of the following modern theories takes on the 3 basic issues:
Psychoanalytic theory–One course, Discontinuous, nature & nurture
Behaviorism & social learning–Many courses, Continuous, Nurture
Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory–One course, Discontinuous, nature & nurture
Info processing–One course, Continuous, nature & nurture
Ethology–One course, Both, nature & nurture
Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective–Many courses, Both, nature & nurture
Dynamic systems theory–Many courses, Not specified, nature & nurture
IX. Studying Development (27-35):
Research usually begins w/ a theory, or a prediction about behavior drawn from a theory.
Distinguish tween research methods & research designs.
Research methods: the activities of participants (answering questionnaires, interviews, being observed)
Research designs: overall plans for studies that permit the best possible test of the investigator’s hypothesis.
Compare/contrast naturalistic* & structured observation*, noting 1 strength/1 limitation
Naturalistic: Investigators can see directly the everyday behaviors they hope to explain. But not all individuals have the same opportunity to display a particular behavior in everyday life.
Structured: permits more control of research situation. But Ppl dont behave in the lab as they do in life.
Explain how clinical interviews* differ from structured interviews*, (note benefits of each).
Clinical: Uses a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant’s point of view. 1st strength–permits ppl to display their thoughts in terms close to real life. 2nd, it can provide a large amount of info in a fairly brief period.
Structured: Each participant is asked the same question in the same way. These instruments are much more efficient. Answers are briefer & researchers can obtain written responses from an entire group of children/adults at the same time. However, these approaches dont yield the same depth of info as a clinical interview & they can still be affected by the problem of inaccurate reporting.
Summarize the limitations of the clinical interview technique.
The accuracy w/ which ppl report their thoughts, feelings, & experiences. The clinical interview has also been criticized because of its flexibility. When questions are phrased differently for each participant, responses may be due to the manner of interviewing rather than to real differences in the way ppl think.
T/F: Researchers can eliminate inaccurate reporting by conducting structured interviews rather than clinical interviews.
True
Cite the primary aim of the clinical method*.
“… to obtain as complete a picture as possible of that individual’s psychological functioning & the experiences that led up to it” (29).
The clinical method has been used to find out what contributes to the accomplishments of prodigues–extremely gifted children who attain the competence of an adult before age 10.
Discuss the drawbacks of using the clinical, or case study, method.
Info is often collected unsystematically & subjectively, permitting too much leeway for researchers’ theoretical preferences to bias their observations & interpretations. Investigators can’t assume that their conclusions apply to anyone but the person studied. Even when patterns emerge across cases, it is wise to try to confirm them w/ other research strategies.
Ethnography* is a research method aimed at understanding a culture or distinct social group. This goal is achieved through particular observation , a technique in which the researcher lives w/ the cultural community & participants in all aspects of daily life.
Cite 2 limitations of the ethnographic method.
Sometimes their presence does alter the situation- as w/ clinical research, investigators’ cultural values/theoretical commitments–lead them to observe selectively/misinterpret what they see.The findings of these studies can’t be applied beyond the ppl & settings in which the research was conducted.
IX. Cultural Influences: Immigrant Youths–Amazing Adaptation (30-35):
Describe the basic features of the correlational design*.
Researchers gather info on already-existing groups of individuals, generally in natural life circumstances & make no effort to alter their experiences. Then they look at relationships tween participants’ characteristics & their behavior or development.
T/F: The correlational design is preferred by researchers because allows them to infer cause/effect.
False
Investigators examine relationships among variables using a correlation coefficient*, a number that describes how 2 measures/variables are associated w/ one another.A correlation coefficient can range from +1.00 to -1.00 . The magnitude of the # shows the strength of the relationship tween the 2 variables, +/- indicates the direction of the relationship.A + sign means that as 1 variable increases, the other increases . A – sign indicates that as 1 variable increases, the other decreases.
A researcher determines that the correlation tween warm, consistent parenting & child delinquency is -.80. Explain what this indicates about the relationship the 2.A negative sign indicates that as 1 variable increases, the other decreases.
If the same researcher had found a correlation of +.45, what would this have indicated about the relationship tween warm, consistent parenting & child delinquency?
A positive sign means that as 1 variable increases, the other increases.
What is the primary distinction tween a correlational design & an experimental design*?
Unlike a correlational design, an experimental design permits inferences of cause & effect because they use an evenhanded procedure to assign ppl to 2 or more treatment conditions.
The independent variable* is anticipated by the researcher to cause changes in the dependent variable*.
What feature of an experimental design enables researchers to infer cause&effect relationship tween the variables?
Cause&effect relationships can be detected because the researcher controls/manipulates changes in the independent variable by exposing participants to the treatment conditions. Then the researcher compares their performance on measures of the dependent variable.
By using random assignment* of participants to treatment conditions, investigators are able to control for characteristics that could reduce the accuracy of their findings.
In field experiments, they randomly assign ppl to treatment conditions in natural settings.
T/F: Natural experiments differ from correlational research in that groups of participants are carefully chosen to ensure that their characteristics are as much alike as possible.
True
In a longitudinal design*, a group of participants is studied repeatedly at different ages & changes are noted as the participants mature.
List 2 advantages of the longitudinal design.
Researchers can identify common patterns of development as well as individual differences.Permit investigators to examine relationships tween early & later events & behaviors.
Describe 3 problems in conducting longitudinal research.
Participants may move away/dropout of the research. This changes the original sample so it no longer represents the population to whom researchers would generalize their findings.From repeated study, ppl may become test-wise–Their performance may improve as a result of better test-taking skills & increased familiarity w/ the test–not because of factors associated w/ development.
Cohort effects*:Ppl born in the same time period are influenced by the same historical/cultural conditions.
Describe the cross-sectional design*.
Groups of participants of different ages are studied at the same point in time.In cross-sectional designs, researchers don’t need to worry about participant dropout.
Describe 2 problems associated w/ conducting cross-sectional research.
Evidence about change at the level at which it actually occurs isn’t
available. Comparisons are limited to age-group averages. We can’t tell if important individual differences exist.
Like longitudinal research, they can be threatened by cohort effects. Groups born & reared in different years–may not really represent age-related changes. Instead, they may reflect unique experiences associated w/ the historical period in which each age group grew up.
In the longitudinal-sequential design*, researchers merge longitudinal & cross-sectional research strategies. List 2 advantages of this design.
It permits us to find out whether cohort effects are operating by comparing ppl of the same age who were born in different yrs. We can make longitudinal & cross-sectional comparisons. If outcomes are similar in both, then we can be especially confident in our findings.
X. Ethics in Lifespan Research (37-39):
Describe the participants’ research rights.
Protection from harm: Participants have the right to be protected from physical & psychological harm in research. When harm seems possible, investigators should find other means for obtaining the desired info or abandon the research.
Informed consent: Participants, including children & elderly, have the right to have explained to them, inlanguage appropriate to their level of understanding, all aspects of the research that may effect their willingness to participate. All participants have the right to discontinue participation in the research at any time.
Privacy: Participants have the right to concealment of their identity on all info collected in the course of research.
Knowledge of results: Participants have the right to be informed of the results of research in language appropriate to their level of understanding.
Beneficial treatments: If experimental treatments believed to be beneficial are under investigation, participants in control groups have the right to alternative beneficial treatments if they are available.
For children 7 yrs & older, their own consent must be obtained, w/ parental consent .
T/F: Like children, older adults require more than the usual informed consent procedure.
False
In debriefing, the investigator provides a full account & justification of research activities to participants in a study in which deception was used.
