What is “Witchcraft”? This question is gaining importance to people as we approach the 20th century. To catch up with a constantly changing environment, people should be more aware and open-minded to things, especially to those that are rejected by our old traditional sets of values. We should get to know why does the Old World reject some beliefs by studying the original meanings behind those myths. The more we keep ourselves open to ideas, the more chances we have to explore ourselves and to advance our lives and our society. Each of us is a different individual. Not everybody feels right about the existing “socially-accepted” sets of values. Getting to know more about other alternatives simply gives us more possibilities to choose. Due to centuries of bad press, general impression of Witchcraft is all about evils, Magick, and spells. In fact, it may just be a religion that believes in Gods and the harmonic relationship between humans and the natural environment. This research paper is to redefine, in more accurate words, the truth of one of the oldest religion in the world.
2.0 Methods
In this research paper, I have used information from the Internet such as some homepages built by some Coven and believers. I also used books that are mainly about the general structure of the Craft and its religion “Wicca”. I have also had an interview with one of the Witch, Robb Boyle, on the 14th of November 1998. I asked him general ideas and some specific details about the Craft and the religion.
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3.0 Results
3.1 Brief historical background of the Witchcraft in the world.
Scholars like anthropologists, archaeologists and historians believe that the practice of “Witchcraft” has been existed for the around 20,000 to 40,000 years (Johnson).
In every society, practitioners’ vocations vary, like midwives or herbalists (DiLorenzo).
However, fine distinctions of “Witches” were not made. People who believe in nature deities, and possessed fortune-telling or supernatural powers have all been considered as “Witches”. Witchcraft can be found in different kind of culture all over the world, like the Celtic, Greek, African, Egyptian and Asian (Moorey 18-20).
The most well known one is the Celtic tradition of the craft. It is because during the classical time, the Witches’ religion and the Celtic religion have inter-influenced each other greatly (Johnson).
The ancient history of the craft mainly consists of a large part of persecution and discrimination against the pagans by the public. This was due to the fact when Christianity grew stronger and expanded its political power; it set laws to suppress its “rival”. One of its opposition was Witchcraft. The old Gods now becomes the evil of the new religion (Johnson and Our History).
“In 1755 . . . in a ‘Dictionary of the English Language,’ defined a witch as ‘a woman given to unlawful arts.’ . . . The book ‘Errores’, written in 1450, declared, ‘Witches . . . often make verbal pacts and promises with the Devil . . . ‘. During the ‘Burning Times’ (circa 1400-1700), those accused of witchcraft were hung, drowned or burnt whether they confessed or not . . .by 1700, at least 200,000 women and girls had been killed (DiLorenzo).
Other similar cases of persecution were Pope Innocent VIII who produced the Bulls against the Witches in 1484 and two infamous German monks created their anti-Witchery plan, the Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches Hammer), two years later. The Archbishop of Treves was convinced that the local Witches had caused a severe winter and therefore 120 men and women who were thought to be the troublemakers were burned to death in 1586. Witches were the most convenient scapegoats for every aspect of life. Besides religious reasons, Witches studied a lot and had a broad knowledge of botany, meteorology, anatomy, veterinary science, psychology, astronomy, and primitive physics. What we called “science” now was considered as “magic” in the superstitious population of that time (DiLorenzo).
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Thus, many Witches were persecuted throughout history. Lists of “Witchcraft craze” happenings in England, Scotland, and France in the medieval time are attached with the paper (see appendix 1).
In the late 19th century, as the society was getting more open to ideas, Witches had started to come forward to speak of the truth of their religion. The religion was legalized in the 50’s. Finally, Witches began to enjoy the freedom of religion, which had been existed for quite a long time, as others (Johnson).
It was around this very moment, in the 40s, when the Craft was revived and the term “Wicca” has officially become the name of the religion of Witches (Moorey 17).
3.2 Background of the craft in United States
The old religion was slowly pushed back by Christian churches in Europe. Christianity claims Witches were “evil” and the “Satan” worshipped. The concepts of “Satan” and “evil” were actually constructed under the Christians’ point of view (Vogel and Our History).
The most well known event in the American history of Witchcraft persecution was the “Salem Trial”. In the town of Salem, Massachusetts, 19 people were executed in 1962. Around twenty people in the town who had suffered from hallucinations, spasm or whose cattle had died blamed those “Witches” for cursing them and putting them in trouble (DiLorenzo).
At that time, claiming others as Witches was the easiest way to get rid of an undesired enemy. Those accused were typically vulnerable members of the Puritan community- quarrelsome, gossipy old women or some non-puritan. The Massachusetts legislature resolved that those hang due to the accusation of Witchcraft “may have been illegally tried, convicted and sentenced” in 1957 (Glover).
That recognition has come 300 years late. Only after that trial, witch-hunting ended in America. Although large-scale hunting stopped, but discrimination and misconception persists. Recent examples are when KGUN-TV and a local church devastate the Desert Henge Coven and accused coven’s members were performing “Satanic Rituals” in 1990 and Geoffrey Dickins ask the Parliament to ” . . .wipe Witches off the face of the earth” in 1988 (Johnson).
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3.3 Definition and Terminology
“Witchcraft” means “Craft of the Wise Ones”(Vogel).
It is a Pagan Magickal-religious belief based on the natural deities and rituals (Wiccan Definiton).
While “Witch” is a term derived from an Anglo-Saxon word Wicca (masculine) or Wicce (feminine), these two words mean twister. It was pronounced as “wee-cha”. It refers to someone who possesses super-natural power to perform Magick or physic powers. It also applied to those members and followers of the Witches’ religion. Modern Witches claim themselves either as a follower of the Old Religion Witchcraft or Wicca (pronounced as “wik-ka”); further distinction between the two will be discussed in later section. Male Witch is sometimes mistakenly called as “warlock”. This is actually a Scottish word means “traitor” and it is an insult to Witches. A male witch is still called as a Witch (Johnson).
“Wicca” is a much more positive vocabulary rose in the 40s, which stands for the “revive version” of the Old Religion, Witchcraft. The word “Wicca” is originated from Indo-European of the “Wic” and “Weik” which means to blend or turn. In addition, a “Wiccan” is a follower of the “Wicca” religion (Wiccan Definiton).
The “Book of Shadows” is a Witches’ book of Rituals, spells, and Magickal lore. It is a journal that allows Witches to note down all his/her rituals and spells (Thompson 67-68).
A “Coven” is an organization of Witches, like the churches in Christianity while referring to a “Solitary”, means a Witch that worships on his/her own without joining any Coven. Further details about coven will be mentioned in later section. “Charge” is a Magickal act, which saturates a certain object with personal power (Wiccan Definiton).
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The method that Witches would use to worship the Goddess and the Horned God is called “Ritual”. They request and wish through Magick while they perform Rituals. Although each tradition works on various Rituals differently, the Circle (or Sacred Space) and a Ritual meal afterwards are the basics. They use Rituals to celebrate the close relationship between themselves, the Gods, and the nature (Johnson).
The word “Maigick” is used to distinguish between those “magic” which is performed for entertainment purposes and the soul power of Witches (Alaya).
“Initiation” is the ceremonial recognition of prospects that becomes Witches. It is the most important Ritual for a Witch. While a “Novice” is an officially accepted student in the Coven, the “prospect” is the one who wants to join the fellowship but has not initiated as yet. “Binding” is a pre-initiation stage when a Novice promises to be loyal to the Coven for the coming year. Novices often wear green cords (Johnson).
3.4 The facts about the Craft
3.4.1 Their ideas and the Nature of the Belief
Witchcraft is a “natural” religion (Vogel).
It believes in the harmonic relationship between human beings, the natural environment, and Gods. In fact, Witches believe in the co-existence of a God and a Goddess (Alaya).
The Goddess is the Mother of Earth and Nature and rivers are her blood (Boyle).
She is the source of everything that exists according to the religion. The moon represents her (The Grimoire).
She embodies the fertility of the plant, animal, and human kingdoms. She has the greatest power from May to October, a period that is being called as the “fertile half” of the year (Vogel).
She symbolizes changeless and eternity (Wicca: A Guide For The Solitary Practitioner, Cunningham 12) The God represented by woodlands, the Sun, grain, and the hunt. It was because most prehistoric prey had horns, the God is; therefore, often being called as the “Horned One”. On the contrary, his power is at peak in the “dark half” of the year, from October to May (Vogel).
As the religion believes that fertility and balance on both body and soul, they think that the perfect blend of two genders is important for the whole system to work (Johnson).
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In the eyes of Witches, Gods and Goddess are equally important, although some emphasized on worshipping the Goddess (Wicca: A Guide For The Solitary Practitioner, Cunningham 11).
The common myth that Witches believe in “evil” is not true. Instead, they believe in the “Wiccan Rede” (see appendix 2).
It is a basic moral code of the religion (Vogel).
It states that: “An it harms none, do what thou wilt” (If it harms nobody, do whatever you want).
Witches are left to choose what they would do. There is no such thing like “forgiveness” in Christianity. The “Threefold law” states that either good or evil, it comes back to them three times over (Johnson).
Through this law, Witches learn to be responsible for their own action. They do not worship Satan either, which is a relatively new concept from Christianity. In addition, they do not do any kind of human or animal sacrifice at all (Vogel and Friedberg).
According to my interviewee, the whole purpose of practicing the craft is to reach out to the innermost of believers and to achieve a perfectly harmonious relationship with the environment. The Old Religion carries few aspects that are very different from other religions; one of these is “Reincarnation”. Witches think that everything will be reborn into the physical world after its’ death. Their life follows a cycle of birth, death and reborn just like the endless the cycle of the moon. This is a very important and interesting concept in the Witches’ faith (Reincarnation: The Cycle of Rebirth).
There is no exact method of how this cycle works; therefore, Witches are given freedom to explore how things work for them. Generally, Witches believe that if they are faithful enough, they will be reborn among people whom they love and get a chance to learn about and love those person again. Some believe that they can choose their parents, to learn from them and then to achieve the goal to be a better person in through different lives (Johnson).
They also believe that their Gods are reborn in every cycle (Boyle).
The symbol of the religion, the pentagram, fully illustrates this idea. It is a five-pointed star in an upright, one-point-up position. The top point symbolizes the spirit and the Creator being the almighty above. Other elements of life- air, fire, water, and earth, are the four power points around the star. This never-ending circle symbolizes the cyclically reborn deity. The circle has also encompassed a star within it, and that is actually a symbol of an out-stretched human body, reaching all connection (Vogel).
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As Satanic use the upside downed pentagram to illustrate their philosophies on “willpower, passion, prosperity and earthly-good”; it is very often mistaken that Witchcraft’s pentagram symbolizes the Satan evil spirit (Friedberg) or Witchcraft is the same as Satanic. Another special belief is “Karma”. It is a reaction to a prior situation. In each reaction, Witches observe their instinct and responses. Gaining knowledge about themselves and their relations to the universe through each “Karma”, Witches learn to be a better person (Johnson).
Witches see psychic as an ability that is born in everybody. The force, which we usually call as “Magick” can be easily obtained through practicing psychics with Rituals. Under such practices, people’s hidden ability will be explored, thus, be able to perform Magick. Some Witches think that the Magickal power is a gift from the Goddess to her children in order to make better lives. After all, it is an effort to assist people but not to replace material strength (Johnson).
3.4.2 Some Practices and Ceremonies
Unlike some major religions, the Witches’ religion does not have luxurious or gigantic temples. It is due to covens never collect money from believers. In fact, they do not need one. To Witches, all nature is their temple. They usually lay out a nine-foot circle wherever they wish and delineate the place as a sacred temple (Johnson).
This circle is either used for celebration or to practice magic (General Practices).
Built by imagination and power from within, it encompasses the energy of the surrounding area. (Wicca: A Guide For The Solitary Practitioner, Cunningham 57).
After Ritual is over, the Circle is either wiped away or saved for next occasions. Witches have some special practices, like the “Skyclad”. People go naked when they worship the moon for example. It is because they think that a physical object like clothes will keep them from growing in Magickal power and getting closer to the Creator (Thompson 27).
They also meditated in order to get into a “trance” stage. They think they can communicate with their Gods best in this psychological condition (Wicca: A Guide For The Solitary Practitioner, Cunningham 81).
Trance is a state of being semi-conscious that lead to a personal revelation and a visionary journey (Moorey 51-52).
Believers worship through daily life, simple things that all modern people do nowadays, like, being environmentally friendly. It is because they think that if the nature suffer, the suffering will be “cycled” back to human being soon or later (Boyle, Alaya and Friedberg).
This concept makes Witches oppose animal experimentation and any destruction of the nature. They started behaving so centuries ago while to the mass, being “environmental friendly” is rather a new trend. They cast spell when they worship. It is a Magickal ritual but there is nothing mysterious about it (Wicca: A Guide For The Solitary Practitioner, Cunningham 203).
It is just the equivalent of “prayer” in Christianity (Alaya).
According to the religion, spells concentrate energy from the nature and combined it with the psychic power from within (Magick).
Witches convert this kind of power into a message back to the exterior. Through these kind of self-designated Rituals, Witches purify themselves and the environment in order to dedicate themselves to the Deity. Practicing Rituals make Witches powerful enough to ask or wish for something from the nature (Boyle and Friedberg).
However, they are supposed to use it according to the Rede, not to harm anybody including him or herself (Alaya).
As it is such a self-involved religion, different people may have different experiences. Normally, Witches keep a record of their personal experiences, feelings and some spells that they have composed in a journal called “The Book of Shadows” (Wicca: A Guide For The Solitary Practitioner, Cunningham 196).
This book usually passes from generation to generation. Witches use different kinds of tools when they worship, like the athame is a dagger used to direct energy from the nature. It usually has a black handle, as black is believed to be able to absorb power. It probably will not be for any physical cutting. The athame symbolizes masculinity, air, or fire. The wand is an instrument for invocation; it can be made of any material. If it is cut from a tree, Witches will “explained” to the tree why they are doing so and may give the tree something like, a stone as offerings. This action illustrate the “environmental friendly” nature and the “cycle” belief of the religion. The wand symbolizes air or fire. Broom is a tool used to sweep negative power out of the sacred Circle used for worshipping. It symbolizes intellect, cleansing, and air. The chalice is for holding wine or water on the altar. It symbolizes femininity and water while the pentacle is a pentagram inscribed in metal plate used for evoking and protection purposes and it symbolizes the five elements and earth (The Grimoire).
3.4.3 Rituals and Festivals
As mentioned above, Witches believe in nature, never ending cycle of life and the Deity (both God & Goddess).
Their festive celebrations are based on the changes of the environment and the rebirth of their god. The Esbats, the Lunar Rites, are dedicated to the Goddess. These are Rituals when Witches do complex training on Magick. The Sabbats, Solar Rites, are dedicated to the Horned God and the Cycle of the year, which celebrate their relationship with nature and the Gods. Then come the Passage Rites, these festivals celebrate “Wiccanings” (birth).
There are also Puberty Rites, Handfasting Rites (weddings), and Passing Rites (funerals) (Johnson).
As mentioned that Christianity and Witchcraft had so much influence over each other, many Sabbats listed below are now celebrated as different festivals in Christianity; like “Samhain” is celebrated as “Halloween” and “Yule” is celebrated as “Christmas”. “Yule” is the Winter Solstice (December 21st).
It is the shortest day of the year and it is a solar festival that is celebrated by the element “fire” and the use of Yule log. Colors of the season are red and green. Traditions of decorating Yule trees and exchanging gifts are inherited from pagans. Food is specially prepared for Yule celebration. Trees will be lightened up and logs are burned. A piece of the log will be saved to light up the tree in next year. That leftover piece is kept all year long in the house as a sign of protection to the house. Candles are also burnt as a sign of ensuring wealth and happiness. Then it comes the “Candlemas” (February 2nd).
This is the first one of the three spring festivals. Lavender and white candles are burned. It celebrates the coming of the spring, fertility, and new life. On March 5th is the “Ostatra” which is also called the “spring equinox”. Night and day are of equal length on that day. This is a celebration of the balance between winter and spring. People bless seeds for future planting on that day and painted eggs are placed on the altar as magickal protection. Easter how Christianity call this festival. Holiday colors are light green, lemon, and pale pink. “Beltane” (May 5th) is the last one of the trinity spring festivals. All living things will prepare themselves for the coming of warmth on that day. People will decorate trees with colorful ribbons. The summer solstice has the longest daytime of the year. It represents the glorious Sun King and celebrate passion and success. Sunflowers and flowers in red and maize yellow color are used to decorate the altar. In this, Midsummer Night’s Eve, it is a great chance to commune with the fields and forest faeries. “Lammas” in on the August 2nd. It is the first of the three harvest festivals in the fall. Bread is traditionally baked for celebration. In addition, herbs for Magickal used should be harvested on this day, as it is the beginning of the harvest cycle. Fall Equinox is on September 23rd. It also has equal length of daytime and nighttime same as the spring equinox. It starts winter. Moreover, the male and the female force stand in balance on that day. Blackberry-blue colored candles is used during celebration (Sabbats).
Samhain (October 31st) is known by Christianity to be “Halloween”. The day is dedicated to the eternal life. People will have connection to loved ones who have died. It is because the veil that separates the world of forms and the invisible world gets to its thinnest on that night. Samhain is pronounced as “sow-wen”. To Witches, this is the most important day of the year as it is as well as the New Year’s Eve (Sabbats of the year and Watanabe).
3.4.4 Traditions
As the belief has been existed for such a long time, there are many traditions passed from the past. Each tradition has its own emphasis. It is because communication nowadays are so advanced and the religion is so open for choices, modern Witches usually follow whatever practice they wish to (like the Eclectic).
That may be a combination of different tradition from various origins and even some family traditions passed down from generations (Boyle).
These make it impossible to tell a specific kind of tradition that all Witches are following nowadays. Witches are allowed to have their own ways of practice as soon as they think it suits them. There are few traditions that are particularly popular though. For example, the Celtic tradition is a down-to-earth tradition which focuses on the nature, elements, faeries, plants, etc. “Green Witches” tend to follow this path. The “Ceremonial Witchcraft” uses ceremonial Magick to enhance their connection with the mighty, explore their abilities, and recognize their higher purposes. Rituals of this tradition are often derived from Egyptian magick. Dianic is another tradition which feminist oriented. Some followers therefore only focus on worshipping the Goddess. According to my interviewee, many feminists Witches choose to follow this path to obtain a balance from the traditional portray of the Divine as a male, like Jesus in Christianity. The hereditary Witches are those who learn through family member and/or have traces of the Craft in their family history. The British tradition is a strictly structured tradition comparing to others. Its Rituals consist of both Celtic and Gardnerian traditions. Eclectic Witches are the free-runner in the Craft. They blend the ideas of many different traditions. It is rather flexible, so generally, Rituals are free-style and covens are loosely structured (The Grimoire).
Kitchen is a practical down-to-earth tradition according to my interviewee. Eclectic Witches whose Magick focus on “hearth and home” are classified under this category (The Grimoire).
There is also an Italian tradition name Stratic (Boyle).
There are no accurate statistics about how many traditions actually exist because the religion is keep on evolving. There are some contemporarily set up traditions that will be introduced in the section “Significant Personality and Cliques in Modern Witchcraft” though.
3.5 Organizations and cliques
3.5.1 Coven
Covens are the equivalent of churches in Christianity in the Craft. According to Johnson, it consisted from 3 unrelated members to 13 people. Members of fellowship meet regularly for Rituals or other important matters. It is runs by the High Priest and High Priestess. In the traditional religion, the Coven is divided into the Inner court and the Outer court. The Outer court is mainly a training group. Those who wish to join the Coven like Prospects and Novices were taught how to behave in the coven. The Inner court is the actual place where Witches worship and learn. High Priest and High Priestess run both courts (Johnson).
The most common system works in coven is the “Three Degree System”. The first degree is the student/Witch. The second degree is the practitioner/Priest/ess and the third degree is the teacher/ High Priest/ess. Other traditions may have somewhat up to thirteen degrees. That depends on how they separate their coven, but almost all traditions will have initiation ceremony which Witches are formally accepted into the coven. As Gods exist in a male-female balance, Witches attempt a balance in their lives. Thus, Witches try to be sexually equality. Rules may be set in certain covens that some Rituals must be performed by a High Priestess though most have a High Priest as well. Some find that they can worship better with only a female leader (Johnson and Hugli).
3.5.2 Significant Personality and Cliques in Modern Witchcraft
Gerald Gardner ” . . .was (once) the single voice speaking for the Craft” (Our History).
He is the first one to admit that he is fascinated by the Craft to the public. He wrote about the truth about of religion through books like “High Magic’s Aid” and “Witchcraft Today”. His publicity helps to revitalize the religion. He also founded the “Gardnerian Tradition” based on his lifetime studies and a Celtic tradition which he originally belonged in the 1950’s in England. This tradition means a lot to modern Witches. Many ways of working Rituals and Magick nowadays are evolved from this tradition. His follower Doreen Valiente rewrote some fragments of his Rituals. Raymond Buckland was the first recognized Witch in contemporary America. He had brought and popularized the Craft into this society. Initiated in Scotland, Buckland came all the way to America, a place where there were no covens at all, to promote the truths about the belief. Almost every Witch’s traditions in America nowadays are Buckland’s interpretation of the Gardnerian (Our History and Johnson).
Alexander Sanders is another important personality. He combines the Gardnerian Witchcraft with the Ceremonial tradition and forms a popular tradition, the Alexandrian, around 1960 in England. He drew much attention from the media and is being called as “The King of Witches” (Johnson and The Grimoire).
Silver Ravenwolf and Scott Cunningham is both American who had achieved a lot in promoting the Craft in the American society through writing books and promoting it through the media (Boyle).
3.6 Definition of Wicca
It is said to be “the religion of Witches”. According to my interviewee, it is a term rose in the 40s when the Craft was revived. Asking some Witches through the Internet, some found that there are no differences between “Witchcraft” and “Wicca” at all (like my interviewee) while some Witches react strongly claiming that they are “Witches” but not “Wiccan”. According to Alaya,
“Wicca” is a tradition under Witchcraft. Just like Catholic is under Christianity. People who follow the religion of Witchcraft are witches. The people who follow Wicca are Wiccans. All Wiccans are witches but not all witches are Wiccan. There are many tradition witches can follow. Wicca is only one of them . . . there . . . are Wiccan that do not consider themselves as witches. But usually all Wiccans are witches.”
Generally, through the Internet sources I have researched through, “Wicca” is interpreted, as the religion of Witches and “Wiccan” is its believer. Few people can really tell the differences between the two. Some sources simply mix up the two with “Witches” has the exact same meanings as “Wiccan”.
3.7 Evolutions of the Craft
Throughout all these years, the Craft have many evolutions. Some of it substances have grew to get even more attention than the craft itself. These are like herbalism and aromatherapy.
According to the book “Magical Herbalism” by Scott Cunningham, herbalism is a knowledge that passes from generation to generation along with Witchcraft (xii).
Its main practical purposes are to protect and heal while in Witchcraft, it is part of the Magick used for evoking and soothing purposes.
Aromatherapy is a rather new theory comparatively to herbalism. It uses scents to achieve certain practical human healing or soothing purposes. Scents may be from the natural environment or from essence oil.
3.8 Future Trend
Witches are getting more actively involved in telling the truth about their religion publicly nowadays. There are also more positive and true portrays of the Craft in Hollywood, like TV show “Charmed” and movie “The Practical Magic” (Watanabe).
Although there are still many religious superstitious accusations against the craft in this scientific era, the religion is likely to get attention that is more positive in the future and may there be more believers of it.
Works Cited
Boyle, Robb. Personal interview. I4 November 1998.
Cunningham, Scott. Magickal Herbalism. Minnesota: Llewellyn, 1986.
—–. Wicca: A Guide For The Solitary Practitioner. Minnesota: Llewellyn, 1988
Moorey, Teresa. Witchcraft: a beginner’s guide. London: Hooder & Stoughton, 1996.
Thompson, Janet. Of Witches: celebrating the Goddess as a solitary pagan. Maine: Samuel Weiser, 1993.
DiLorenzo, Kris. “That old black magic keeps witches in popular culture.” Star Tribune.
29 October 1995. Online. Internet. Available WWW:
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