Executive Summary:
Introduction:
Barcode has a lot of type, but the most common barcode is the UPC (Universal Product Code).
This barcode is usually used in all groceries and supermarkets. Each digit is coded by two black and two white stripes. The stripes have widths of from 1 to 4 units, and the total width for each digit is always seven units. These codes are important most especially in products that we are buying. These codes can’t be repeated again because products are different from each other.
Some digits of the barcode are reversed, so that they read right and left. Part of the code has black and white inverted, so black stripes are white and vice-versa. This helps cut down errors and allows the computer to work out if the code was read from the wrong end when it was scanned. The barcodes are readable even it is reversed because the code of black and white is also reversed so that it can still be read in the computer and work.
Almost everyone is familiar with the striped bars found on grocery and retail stored items. These are barcodes, or more specifically, the Universal Product Code (UPC).
UPC codes first appeared in stores in1973 and have since revolutionized the sales industry. The UPC code consists of ten pairs of thick and thin vertical bars that represent the manufacturer’s identity, product size and name. Price information, which is not part of the bar code, is determined by the store. Bar codes are read by handheld wand readers or fixed scanners linked to point of sale (POS) terminals. Bar codes are also used for non-retail purposes. One of the earliest uses for bar codes was as an identifier on railroad cars.
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Organizers of sporting events also take advantage of bar code technology. The use of barcode technology in an industrial setting can be traced back as far as the 1960s, with some early implementations to identify railroad cars. Common barcodes began appearing on grocery store shelves in the early 1970’s as the UPC code to automate the process of identifying grocery items.
Today, barcodes are just about everywhere and are used for identification in almost all areas of business. When barcodes are implement in business processes, procedures can be automated to reduce human error and increase productivity. Bar coding should be considered whenever there is a need to accurately identify or track something.
Literature Review:
In 1932 an ambitious project was conducted by a small group of students headed by Wallace Flint at the Harvard University Graduate School of Business Administration. The project proposed that customers select desired merchandise from a catalog by removing corresponding punched cards from the catalog. These punched cards were then handed to a checker who placed the cards into a reader. The system then pulled the merchandise automatically from the storeroom and delivered it to the checkout counter. A complete customer bill was produced and inventory records were updated. Modern bar code began in 1948. Bernard Silver, a graduate student at Drexel Institute of Technology in Philadelphia, overheard the president of a local food chain asking one of the deans to undertake research to develop a system to automatically read product information during checkout. Silver told his friend Norman Joseph Woodland about the food chain president’s request. Woodland was a twenty seven year old graduate student and teacher at Drexel. The problem fascinated Woodland and he began to work on the problem. Woodland’s first idea used patterns of ink that would glow under ultraviolet light. Woodland and Silver built a device which worked, but the system had problems with ink instability and it was expensive to print the patterns. Woodland was still convinced they had a workable idea. Woodland took some stock market earnings, quit his teaching job at Drexel, and moved to his grandfather’s Florida apartment to have more time to work on the problem.
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On October 20, 1949, Woodland and Silver filed a patent application titled “Classifying Apparatus and Method.” The inventors described their invention as relating “to the art of article classification…through the medium of identifying patterns”. Most bar code histories state that the Woodland and Silver bar code was a “bull’s eye” symbol, a symbol made up of a series of concentric circles. While Woodland and Silver did describe such a symbol, the basic symbology was described as a straight line pattern quite similar to present day linear bar codes like UPC and Code 39. The symbology was made up of a pattern of four white lines on a dark background. The first line was a datum line and the positions of the remaining three lines were fixed with respect to the first line. The information was coded by the presence or absence of one or more of the lines. This allowed 7 different classifications of articles. However, the inventors noted that if more lines were added, more classifications could be coded. With 10 lines, 1023 classifications could be coded. The Woodland and Silver patent application was issued October 7, 1952 as US Parent 2,612,994.
In 1962 Silver died at age thirty-eight (in an automobile accident) before having seen the commercial use of bar code. Woodland was awarded the 1992 National Medal of Technology by President George Herbert Walker Bush. Neither Silver nor Woodland made much money on the idea that started a billion dollar business. That was because they sold the patent to RCA in 1952 for a small sum of money, long before any commercialization of the technology. The patent expired in 1969, 5 years before the first industry wide use of barcode in grocery stores. It was an invention ahead of its time. The National Association of Food Chains (NAFC) put out a call to equipment manufacturers for systems that would speed the checkout process. In 1967 RCA installed one of the first scanning systems at a Kroger store in Cincinnati. The product codes were represented by “bull’s-eye barcodes”, a set of concentric circular bars and spaces of varying widths. These barcodes were not pre-printed on the item’s packaging, but were labels that were put on the items by Kroger employees. But there was problems with the RCA/Kroger code. It was recognized that the industry would have to agree on a standard coding scheme open to all equipment manufacturers in order to get food producers and dealers to adopt the technology.
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In 1969, the NAFC asked Logicon, Inc. to develop a proposal for an industry-wide barcode system. The result was Parts 1 and 2 of the Universal Grocery Products Identification Code (UGPIC) in the summer of 1970. Based on the recommendations of the Logicon report, the U.S. Supermarket Ad Hoc Committee on a Uniform Grocery Product Code was formed. Three years later, the Committee recommended the adoption of the UPC symbol set still used in the USA today. It was submitted by IBM and developed by George Laurer (see the history at his web site), whose work was an outgrowth of the idea of Woodland and Silver. Woodland was an IBM employee at the time.
In June 1974, one of the first UPC scanner, made by NCR Corp. (which was then called National Cash Register Co), was installed at Marsh’s supermarket in Troy, Ohio. On June 26, 1974 at 8:01 am, Sharon Buchanan, a checker at Marsh’s supermarket in Troy, Ohio scanned first product with a bar code. It was a 10-pack (10 5-stick packets) of Wrigley’s Juicy Fruit chewing gum. The cash register rang up total of 67 cents for that first item. The pack of gum wasn’t specially designated to be the first scanned product. It just happened to be the first item lifted from the cart by a shopper, Clyde Dawson. Today, the pack of gum is on display at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of American History.
The first attempted at an industrial application of automatic identification was begun in the late 1950’s by the Association of American Railroad. In 1967, the Association adopted an optical bar code from Sylvana called “KarTrak” (see US Patent 3225177 and US Patent 3417231).
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Car labeling and scanner installation began on October 10, 1967. It took seven years before 95% of the fleet was labeled. For many reasons, the system simply did not work and was abandoned in 1975. In 1988, Burington Northern began implementing an RFID tag system to keep track of its rail cars. RFID was the original system proposed in the 1960’s (but it was too expensive).
By August 1991 it was mandatory that all rail cars be tagged with RFID. Perhaps the first industrial application of barcode was a system developed in 1969 by Computer Identics (see US Patent 3673389 and US Patent 3743819) for
General Motors to keep track of automobile axial in inventory. The event that really got bar code into industrial applications occurred September 1, 1981 when the United States Department of Defense adopted the use of Code 39 for marking all products sold to the United States military. This system was called LOGMARS, and is still in use today by the US military.
In September 1982, the United States Postal Service adopted POSTNET barcode as a way to automatically sort mail based on zip code. By October 1983, the USPS had barcode mail sortation equipment running in 100 major metropolitan areas. The USPS had experimented with barcode zip codes on business reply mail since 1977.
Barcode history has its roots in the Great Depression. It has evolved from a punch card
system, designed to speed the purchasing process, to the modern barcodes we see on every product imaginable. The original punch cards proved to be too expensive and the idea was abandoned by its inventor. More than a decade later the barcode as we know it took shape in its simplest form. The original or prototype system used ultraviolet ink but it had a propensity for fading and therefore not feasible; it was also fairly expensive and not economically viable.
The basic idea for the barcode came from Morse code but the dots where extended into lines that alternated black and white in a parallel fashion, and this is still the case today. The original method of scanning the barcode to identify the product was accomplished through high wattage light bulbs, 500 watts to start with, and was used in conjunction with a film industry photomultiplier. This increased the intensity of the light and made the scanning easier for the time being. As more and more companies needed to cut costs and wanted a system for inventory, more technology needed to be invented to make the system feasible.
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As the barcode history progressed, more ideas and innovations were developed and implemented. The parallel lines we recognize as barcodes were not the only form of identification used in the development of barcodes. These are categorized as 2D barcodes or a matrix code. These complex codes were represented in patterns of dots, circles, and a variety and blending of geometric shapes. The complexity of the shapes allows this system to contain more data in a code, but wasn’t used nearly as much as linear barcodes or 1D barcodes. These kinds of barcodes can be found in cellular phone applications such as encoding URLs and images, as well as purchased ticket information for movies and sporting events on a cellular phone.
It wasn’t until the 1960s that barcodes were scanned with a laser, a helium neon laser to be exact. At first only a single laser was used to scan the barcode but soon the addition of other lasers at separate angles were added to make the process more efficient and easier to use. The laser interprets the width of the black lines; each number has its own specific width. The white spaces tell the laser were one number ends and the next begins. Any string of numbers in any order or length can be scanned against a database of information to account for inventory, sales and purchases. Today we use a standardized 11 digit code that identifies any unique product. This code is referred to as the UPC, or Universal Product Code. This was put into practice in 1973 as a test by the Kroger Corporation and it used a system of “bull’s eye” patterns instead of the parallel line patterns we are used to.
The system proved unusable as the printed codes were often smeared and could not be read. One year later the IBM system of barcode lines was adopted and the modern barcode history was born. These barcodes are now used for absolutely everything we purchase from virtually any industry from new cars to new computers – and from baseball tickets to surfing the web with our cellular phones and PDAs. There are few parts of our lives that are not touched by a barcode; they have become an integral part of our everyday lives.
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While it may seem like barcodes have been with us forever, barcodes didn’t really make an impact until the 1970’s. It wasn’t until 1974 that the first barcode scanner was employed and the first product barcode. By then barcodes are not that well known because they all thought that this is not that important in our lives but then they’ve realized that this barcodes are useful especially in products.
But the idea had been around for a quite a while. In 1972, Wallace Flint suggested that an automated retail checked out system might be feasible. While his concept was deem unworkable, Flint continue to support the idea of automated check out throughout his career. In fact, Flint, went on to become the vice president of the association of food chains some 40 years later, was instrumental in the development of the UPC code.
During the 40’s, 50’s, and 60’s several code formats were developed including a bull’s-eye code, numeral codes, and various other formats. Retail applications drove the early technological development of bar coding, but industrial applications soon followed.
In 1948, a local food chain store owner approach Drevel Institute of Technology in Philadelphia asking about research into a method of automatically reading product information during checked out. Bernard Silver, a graduate student at Drexel Institute, along with fellow graduate student Norman Joseph Woodland, team together to develop a solution. Woodland first proposed ultraviolet light sensitive ink. A working prototype was built but rejected as being to unstable and expensive.
Bar coding was first used commercially in 1966, but to make the system acceptable to the industry as a whole there would have to be some sort of industry standard. By 1970, Logicon Inc. had developed the Universal Grocery Products Identification Code (UGPIC).
The first company to produce barcode equipment for retail trade using UGPIC was the American Company Monarch Marking (1970), and for industrial use, the British Company Plessey Telecommunication (1970).
In 1972, a Krogger Store in Cincinnati Kegan using a bull’s eye code. During that same timeframe, a committee was formed within the grocery industry to select a standard code in the industry. IBM proposed a design, based upon the UGPIC work and similar to today’s UPC code. On April 3, 1973, the committee selected the UPC symbol (based on the IBM proposal) as the industry standard. The success of the system since then has spurred on the development of the coding systems. George J. Laurer is considered the inventor of UPC or Uniform Product Code.
Methodology:
Study:
Each character is represented by a pattern of wide and narrow bars. A barcode reader uses a Photosenssor to convert the barcode into an electrical signal as it moves across a barcode. The scanner then measures the relative widths of the bars and spaces, translates the different patterns back into regular characters, and sends them on to a computer or portable terminal.
Every barcode begins with a special start character and ends with a special stop character. These codes help the reader detect the barcode and figure out whether it is being scanned forward or backward. Some barcodes may include a checksum character just before the stop character. A checksum is calculated when the barcode is printed using the characters in the barcode. The reader performs the same calculation and compares its answer to the checksum it read at the end of the barcode. If the two don’t match, the reader assumes that something is wrong, throws out the data, and tries again.
Analysis:
Conclusions and Recommendations:
References and Appendices:
