Abstract
The goal of the proposed study is to assess the relationship between self-regulation, risk-taking behaviour and risk proneness in adolescents between 12 and 18 years of age. It is hypothesized that positive relationships will exist between the three variables, and that levels of each will remain fairly constant in most individuals over time. Subjects will be 12 year olds selected by convenience sampling through public schools in the Saskatoon area; in total, a sample size of at least one hundred will be attempted. Subjects will complete self-report measures assessing their levels of self-regulation, risk proneness and risk taking behaviour. The results of the proposed research will add to existing research on risk-taking behaviour, as well as developmental change over adolescence.
Adolescence is a time when many youth are still developing their decision-making skills. At times, many adolescents act in ways which display judgment that is imperfect or not entirely mature. For example, one 2002 study found that 42% of sexually-active high school students had not used a condom the last time they had had intercourse, and 22% had had more four or more sexual partners by grade 12 (statistics cited in Raffaeli and Crockett, 2003).
These and related behaviours, such as sexual contact after substance use, drinking to excess, and driving after drug or alcohol use, exhibit some acceptance, or lack of consideration for, risk to themselves and others. Moreover, some adolescents display these risk-taking behaviours habitually, while others do not. Why is this the case?
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A significant body of research has suggested that this may be due to a psychological concept known as self-regulation: “The capacity to regulate emotions, attention and behaviour” (Raffaeli and Crockett, 2003).
Similar terms used in the literature include ego control, delay of gratification, inhibition, self-control and self-restraint; these are all aspects of self-regulation. An individual low in the concept typically has trouble seeing the long-term consequences of their actions; acts impulsively or in a sensation-seeking pattern; is overcome by desires or feelings; and is less likely to focus on the risks in a given situation. Self-regulation has been implicated as a temperamental factor affecting various types of risky behaviour, as well as broader issues of adjustment and social functioning (e.g. Miller and Byrnes, 1997; Eisenberg, Fabes, Murphy, Maszk, Smith and Karbon, 1995; Block, Block and Keyes, 1988).
Generally speaking, lower levels of self-regulation seem to be predictive of problem behaviour in children and adolescents. The current study seeks to explore the hypotheses that self-regulation is a predictor for risk-taking behaviour generally, and also for positive attitudes toward risk.
Lit Review
Over the past three decades, many researchers have reported relationships between low levels of self-regulation, and risk-taking behaviour of various types. In the bulk of literature reviewed, this association is noted to persist even when demographic and contextual factors are controlled for. It is generally accepted that lack of self-regulation occurs alongside such psychological characteristics such as sensation-seeking, curiosity, impulsivity and overconfidence (Miller and Byrnes, 1997).
Raffaeli and Crockett (2003) assessed how self-regulation and risk-proneness early in adolescence predicted sexual risk-taking later on. Young adolescents aged 12-13 years of age were assessed on measures of both constructs; at 17 years of age, they were asked about their sexual behaviour. The researchers hypothesized that those with better self-regulatory skills early on would be less likely to engage in risky behaviour, as they would be better able to resist acting on their impulses, and would instead use mental strategies to guide their choices. This was confirmed, and the study found a significant negative correlation between self-regulation and sexual risk-taking. Correspondingly, a positive correlation was found between self-regulation and risk proneness.
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Miller and Byrnes (1997) took a different approach to the issue of predictive factors in children’s risk-taking behaviour. Two situational factors (the presence or absence of peers; whether the given risk-assessing task was chance- or skill-based) and six personality factors (age; gender; impulsivity; self-sufficiency; fear of failure; and assessment of own abilities) were measured. Miller and Byrnes found that factors predicting risk-taking behaviour were largely those identified as aspects of self-regulation. In particular, an insensitivity to outcomes, and impulsivity were found to predict acceptance of risk. The researchers also noted that in childhood, “other-regulation” (i.e. parental control of situations) may constrain risk-taking that would otherwise take place. In adolescence, they note: “the highest level of inappropriate risk-taking should be found in adolescents who are the least self-regulated and other-regulated” (821).
Eisenberg and colleagues (1995) considered how self-regulatory behaviour, especially in the emotional sphere, predicted social functioning. The researchers noted that the regulation of emotionally-driven behaviour “…is of considerable interest because of its potential role in problem behaviour” (1361).
They predicted, moreover, that level of social functioning observed in 6-8 year olds would be predicted by their levels of emotionality and self-regulation two years earlier. This was supported. The researchers concluded that not only do regulation and emotionality have a demonstrated impact on childreen’s social functioning, but that “differences in these aspects of functioning are associated with long-term social outcomes”. A similar study by Lengua (2002) likewise found that low self-regulation and high emotionality were associated with behaviour problems in children and teens. Furthermore, Lengua found evidence that youth low in self-regulation may be more vulnerable to the effects of “multiple risk”: other factors relating to psychological problems , such as poverty or little social support, may be more difficult for these youth to cope with.
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Block, Block and Keyes (1988) set out to explore whether drug use at age 14 was related to either preschool and/or concurrent personality traits. Both girls and boys were included in the study. For both sexes, drug use correlated with the construct of “ego under-control”, characterized by unpredictability, sensation-seeking, and inability to delay gratification. As Raffaeli and Crockett (2003) note, “ego under-control” may be considered near-interchangeable with “self-regulation”, although the latter is more commonly seen in recent research. Under-control at age 3-4 predicted drug use a decade later. Interestingly, faily life also appeared to play a role for girls but not boys. An unstructured family life appeared to interact with personality factors in predicting later drug use for girls, but this was not found to be true for boys.
Research hypotheses
The primary goals of the proposed study are to investigate the effect of self-regulation on risk-taking behaviour and risk-proneness (attraction to, and positive attitudes toward, risk).
It is hypothesized that positive relationships will be found between all three variables. A secondary goal of this study is to investigate whether these variables hold steady over time; and if change does occur, how this happens. To address this second topic of research, adolescents will be assessed on each of the three variables at ages 12, 15 and 18 years of age. It is hypothesized that all variables will remain fairly constant, and that significant changes in individuals will be rare. Self-regulation seems to be a construct involved in many fundamental aspects of oneself, and thus it is expected that it will remain steady.
Method
Design
The proposed study will use a longitudinal design, in order to best assess any changes between variables that occur over time. Development of risk-taking behaviour, and the psychological constructs that support it, has not often been assessed from a developmental perspective; and when it has, it does not often span past early adolescence. This study seeks to illuminate what may change over the teenage years, 12-18, although again, it is expected that much will remain constant.
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Participants
Ideally for the purposes of this study, about one hundred 12-year olds, fifty boys and fifty girls, will be recruited. Researchers will approach administrators at several school distributed across the community. If administrative approval is given, the researcher will then go on to send information and consent forms home with all 12-year olds enrolled. For ethical and legal reasons, both parental and participant consent is necessary and will be sought. It is expected that for a variety of reasons, the majority of potential subjects and/or their parents may not choose to participate, or may leave the study partway through; for this reason, a large number of information and consent forms will go out in order to ensure a reasonably large sample size.
Measures
Self-regulation will be measured by a modified version of the 13-item scale used in the study by Raffaeli and Crockett (2003), which in turn was a modified version of the 28-item Behaviour Problems Indix (Peterson and Zill, ).
While Raffaelli and Crockett had their subjects’ mothers complete their scale, the current study will have participants themselves complete it, as it is felt that they know themselves and their reactions best. For this reason, it is necessary to modifiy the wording of some items (for example, “He/she has a violent temper and loses it easily” would become, “I have a strong temper and lose it easily”. The rating scale, however, will not be modified in any way. Each item will be rated on a scale of 1 (often true) to 3 (not true).
Risk-proneness will be measured using Raffaelli and Crockett’s 6-item self-rating scale, in which individuals rate on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree) how well a statement concerning attraction to risk and excitement describes them. Examples include “I often get in a jam because I do things without thinking” and “I enjoy taking risks” (2003).
Risk-taking behaviour will be measured using the Adolescent Risk-Taking Questionnaire developed by Mazanov and Byrne (2005).
This 22-item inventory asks participants to rate the frequency with which they engage in a certain behaviour on a scale from 0 (never done) to 5 (done very frequently), as well as their perception of how risky they perceive the activity to be, from 0 (not at all risky) to 4 (extremely risky).
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Examples of items on the ARQ include “Being in a cat that is speeding”, and “Drinking underage” (2005).
References
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R., Murphy, B., Maszk, P., Smith, M. & Karbon,
M.(1995).
The role of emotionality and regulation in children’s
emotional functioning: A longitudinal study. Child Development,
66, 1360-1384.
Lengua, L. (2002).
The contribution of emotionality and self-regulation
to the understanding of children’s response to multiple risk. Child
Development, 73, 144-161.
Mazanov, J. & Byrne, D. (2005).
An evaluation of the stability of
perceptions and frequency of adolescent risk-taking over time
and across samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 40,
725-735.
Miller, D.C. & Byrnes, J.P. (1997).
The role of contextual and personal
Factors in children’s risk-taking. Child Development, 73, 144-161.
Raffaelli, M. & Crockett, L.J. (2003).
Sexual risk-taking in adolescence:
The role of self-regulation and attraction to risk. Developmental
Psychology, 39(6), 1036-1046.
