To what extent did Russia make social, economic and political progress in the period 1855-1906? Until the Industrial Revolution in Russia between the years 1890-1903, Russia was an extremely backwards country economically and socially. It was autocratic and very under-developed. Although there was no significant progress until the Industrial Revolution, after the Crimean War when Alexander II came to power in 1855 as the new Tsar, he brought in his own social, economic and political reforms which signified his reign as the “Epoch of Great Reforms”. His reforms made his reign seem as a turning point for Russian history. In this essay I will be discussing what reforms were made socially, politically and economically to Russian society between the years 1855-1906, and will come to a conclusion as to how much progress was actually made.
The Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861 was the biggest social reform made by Alexander II. 80% of Russian society consisted of Serfs, which was seen as a threat for the Tsar as he feared a revolution coming from below, and so he decided to free the Serfs from Serfdom to ensure the maintenance of Russian autocracy. The ‘Tsar Liberator’ set approximately 44 million peasants free by Edict. Setting the Serfs free meant that they now no longer had to work on any Noble’s land to earn a living, and were allowed to move from the Estates they were currently living in. Serfs were also given the right to own their own land, which gave them an incentive to work harder and help themselves financially as well as the Russian economy. This reform was seen as a big step towards progress and modernisation, since it was the Russian answer to the British and North American Slavery Abolition Act of 1833.
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It also meant that the Peasantry social class had now been abolished in Russia and the Russian society was moving upwards in terms of social classes. Another social reform made to Russian society a few years after the freedom of the Serfs was to do with Education. Alexander II constructed 10,000 more Primary schools in order to educate the former Serfs. In addition to Primary schools, the Tsar also established Universities and two types of Secondary Schools: Classic and Modern. Classic schools focused more on traditional subjects, such as Latin and History, whereas Modern schools focused more on Science and Engineering. These Education reforms were seen as progressive because they now even allowed Serfs to have a decent education, and since these schools tackled more Literacy, knowledge of the students at these schools was also bound to increase which would help the development of the Russian society.
The fact that Science was now also taught at school showed that Russia was making small steps towards modernisation and industry, rather than just being agrarian. A final social reform under the Tsar was to do with censorship. Censorship was more relaxed and writers were now also allowed to criticise the government. This showed progress towards a society that would be more free and accepting. However, all of these social reforms also had limitations. With regard to the Emancipation of the Serfs; although the Serfs were now allowed to own their own land and live away from Nobles’ estates, Serfs ended up living in primitive conditions with 8 acres less land than what they would have had living on their master’s estates.
In addition to having less land, they also had to pay instalments for 49 years to the land owners for any land that they wanted. This put Serfs into a financial crisis because it meant that they always had shortages of food for their families after they paid their mortgages, and some even moved towns to find work and earn a decent amount for their basic needs. All of these were limitations for Serfs because their living conditions after gaining their freedom was worse than what it was like for them when they lived and worked with the Nobles. The education system also had limitations because University education was only available for those who wanted to study the classic subjects, but not those who wanted to do science.
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Not having science education available at University level set back economic progress for Russia as it meant that Russia would not be able to go as far as other countries in Europe, like Britain, who already had industry and modernisation. Therefore, it is fair to say that socially, progress only went to a certain extent for Russia between 1855-1906, as there was the freeing of the Serfs which led to the end of the peasantry class, however, conditions for Serfs were still poor and they were also more financially challenged. The increase of education and facilities did aid the Russian population in gaining an education, particularly former Serfs, but even then the extent to which the more important modern subjects were taught was limited, thus progress was also limited.
Politically, there were also many progressive reforms to Russian society, but there were also many limiting reforms. Russia was always autocratic and there were never any elections or voting until after the Emancipation of the Serfs. An example of a progressive reform was reform to the Local Government. After 1861, District Councils were allowed to be elected by the Nobles, Townspeople and former Serfs. This was a progressive reform as it showed that people other than the Aristocracy and the Tsar himself had some say in who was controlling what was happening in the daily lives of many people. Zemstvos were also created. They were a form of local government who looked after the maintenance of public facilities, such as: bridges, roads and the education system. There were also Provincial Zemstvos that looked after the public health system and chose magistrates for the new law courts.
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Forming Zemstvo showed that Russia was becoming more modern as it displayed small signs of democracy and gave society a chance to have a say and express their opinions; which is a basic human right. Furthermore, as a symbol to show that Russia was progressing, many political groups formed. There was the Liberal Party, The People’s Will 1879, the Social Democratic Labour Party 1898, and the Party of Social Revolutionaries 1902. All of these political parties had different ideas about how Russia should be run and controlled which was the same as what a country with a democratic system would have, such as Britain. The fact that all these different parties had different and strong views, there was always something being planned by the parties to try and get change and try and get what they aimed for.
For example, with the Zemstvo and Russia’s first Duma in 1906, the Liberals were very happy with the establishment of these because it meant that the people now had more of a say and the political system was turning into more of a democracy with different levels, by moving away from the traditional system of autocracy and absolute power of just the Tsar. On the other hand, although many of these political reforms showed progress, they all had faults which limited how much progress actually occurred. Even though there were now many Zemstvos and Provincial Zemstvos, members of these were forbidden to meet in national conferences and discuss problems. This was a limitation because it meant that if there was a problem in a certain area, the local government of that area would not be able to get any help to resolve the issue in their area.
For example if there was a shortage of food in a certain area, the local government of that area could not go to its neighbouring Zemstvos and ask for money or more food; instead it would have to deal with the problems by itself which would lead to frustration and financial difficulties for most of the people living in that area. A limitation to all of these political groups being formed was that many of them were very radical and had communist views. The Social Democratic Labour Party had Marxist views, as well as the Social Revolutionaries Party, which meant that they were also very violent. Most of these parties wanted the assassination of the Tsar so the country could be run democratically, which is the more progressive and modern view, but the way they decided to achieve this was very violent and it led to the public hangings and imprisonment of many of the members of these parties.
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It also made the Tsar and his supporters extremely angry which led to Alexander III using harsher methods to keep everything under control, as well as Nicholas II after him. One major success during the reign of Alexander III was the increased industrial development, which also continued into the reign of Nicholas II. The man who is known to be the brains behind this policy for Russia was Sergei Witte who was appointed Minister of Finance from 1892 until 1903. He encouraged foreign investment and raised the value of silver to the value of gold. A large part of the finance needed for industrialisation came from French, British and German investors, which was very significant as it helped Russia build relationships. During this time period, textiles plants around Moscow and engineering plants in the capital, St Petersburg were also established.
Russia’s coal, iron, steel, and oil production tripled between 1890 and 1900, and that meant that the GNP grew more quickly than any other major European power. This was fantastic progress for Russia economically because Russia was finally industrialising and modernising. As a result of all this industrialisation and factories being built, many job opportunities opened up for people and so unemployment rates also dropped down significantly. Circa 50% of the population worked in factories and industry, and there were approximately 1000 workers in every factory. Russia was finally heading towards its long-delayed industrial revolution. However, even though the country was raising more capital and was starting to modernise, the conditions for factory workers did not change much. Wages were still very low and working conditions were still very poor.
Indeed the country was making more money, but the people inside the country still were not doing so well financially. Even when the government tried to improve the conditions for the workers and get them a higher pay, it was highly resisted by the employers so not much was changed. Therefore, I believe that economic progress definitely did occur during the years 1855-1906, but it was only towards the end of the 19th century/ beginning of the 20th century when the industrial revolution happened. To conclude, I believe that during 1855-1906, there was definitely social, economic and political progress in Russia, but it was always limited. Socially, the biggest reform was the Emancipation of the Serfs, which set the Serfs free from Serfdom, however even after their independence things did not go well for them as they had poorer living conditions, with less land and they were barely making any profit.
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Education was also limited when it got to University education since the sciences and technological subjects were not taught to that level which delayed the industrial revolution from happening earlier. Politically; even though they were local governments and signs of more democracy was being shown, there were not that many big changes to the government. But, there were many more political groups which tried to bring about change, and the fact that so many political groups existed shows that Russia was eventually going to be an autocratic-free society. Economically there was the most reform for Russia in my opinion, since statistics show that Russia’s whole economic situation turned around. They were industrialising, rejuvenating more capital as a state and modernising, all because of Sergei Witte. Therefore I believe that to an extent there was great reform in Russian society socially, politically and economically between the years 1855-1906, but most of the reforms had limitations and were therefore not imposed to their full extent.