operant conditioning was first introduced by B.F. Skinner through his work with respondent behavior and operant behavior. Along with these two types of behavior, Skinner suggested two types of conditioning related to learning: type S, sometimes referred to as respondent conditioning and similar to classical conditioning, and type R, also called operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is an approach to learning that occurs through reward and punishment by creating a connection between a specific behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Skinner utilized the term ‘operant’ to refer specifically to an “active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences” (McLeod, 2007, ¶ 4).
The theory of operant condition suggests two major principles: (1) any response that is followed by a reinforcing stimulus is likely to be repeated; and (2) a reinforcing stimulus is anything that increases the rate with which an operant response occurs (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2009).
In this type of learning, the focus is on behavior and its positive or negative significance – the owner of the behavior must respond in a manner that produces the reinforcing stimulus. Contingent reinforcement exemplifies this process because the reinforcer is dependent upon certain responses from the organism whose behavior is being modified. Other major concepts of Skinners Theory of Operant Conditioning include: the Skinner box, cumulative recording, shaping (including differential reinforcement and successive approximation), extinction, spontaneous recovery, secondary reinforcement, generalized reinforcers, chaining, and positive or negative reinforcers (2009).
The Essay on The Theory of Operant Conditioning
... designed to observe, study, and modify the behavior of lab rats using his theory of operant conditioning. Skinner placed the rat in the box ... Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning summarized behavior, is modified through reinforcement obtaining a desired result. B.F. Skinner observed three types of responses from reinforcers. Neutral operants are neutral responses, ...
Positive and negative reinforcers are two of the most important concepts in operant conditioning. Primary positive reinforcement occurs when something naturally reinforcing (and related to survival) is added to the situation in order to increase the probability of the behavior’s recurrence. A primary negative reinforcer occurs when something naturally harmful to the organism and, when removed from the situation, increases to chances of that response’s recurrence (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2009).
According to Hergenhahn and Olson (2009), “Some reinforcements consist of _presenting_ stimuli, of adding something, to the situation. These we call _positive_ reinforcers. Others consist of _removing_ something from the situation. These we call _negative_ reinforcers” (p. 203).
Punishment (both positive and negative) occurs as a consequence of a negative reinforcer, or the removal of a positive reinforcer. This essentially involves taking away something that the organism wants, or giving it something it does not want (2009).
Determining which reinforcer is more effective (positive or negative) depends greatly upon the specific circumstances surrounding the behavior being modified. Most individuals believe positive reinforcement is more effective because an individual is more likely to repeat a behavior if there is a reward involved. For example: a child who completes his or her chores and receives an allowance is likely to continue the behavior knowing the reward (the allowance) will be the result. On the other hand, negative reinforcement has different types of rewards and can also be effective. For example: if a child is taken to the grocery store and does not want to be there, screaming and crying (which results in embarrassing the parents) can lead to the removal of the child from the store, resulting in rewarding the child (by allowing them to leave and obtain his or her desired results) for their negative behavior.
The Term Paper on Investment Of Time Dog 8216 Breed
The decision to get a dog is not something to be taken lightly. An adorable puppy can tug at our heartstrings but, in the end, will require a significant investment of your time and money for a significant number of years. Socializing and training a new puppy is time consuming and, occasionally, frustrating. It can increase the amount of stress on the family, and the dog, working to provide the ...
Once it has been determined that a behavior needs to be modified using operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement is created. Schedules of reinforcement define alternate ways and intervals in which the chosen manner of shaping behavior is applied. There are two major types of schedules of reinforcement: continuous and intermittent. Continuous reinforcement schedules reinforce a behavior each and every time the behavior occurs, while intermittent reinforcement schedules do not reinforce every instance of behavior (Wickens, 2009).
Robbins and Judge (2007) suggest four different types of intermittent reinforcement: fixed-interval, variable-interval, fixed-ratio, and variable-ratio.
An example of using a continuous schedule of reinforcement could be an attempt to train a dog to quit barking at people who come to the front door of a home through the use of a bark collar, which initiates a mild electric shock each time he or she began to bark. Eventually, the dog would begin to associate the mild shock (which is uncomfortable to the pet) with barking and the behavior will begin to cease. In this example, it is essential that the reinforcement be applied every time the animal began to bark, especially in the first weeks of training. Once the animal has made the association between barking and the shock, it would be necessary to switch to a partial reinforcement schedule to ensure the behavior is occasionally reinforced. For example: REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 6
Day 7
Week 1
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
The Essay on Three Types Of Dogs
Three Types of Dogs People watched for dogs with the traits to do the job, and then they bred them. The process, called selective breeding, started thousands of years ago. The two oldest breeds--greyhounds and mastiffs--developed because people wanted fast-running dogs for hunting and powerful fighting dogs for war. Today, these and other selectively bred dogs are known as purebreds. Because ...
Week 2
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Shocked Each Time The
Dog Barks
Week 3
Shocked Every 3rd Time The Dog Barks
Shocked Every 3rd Time The Dog Barks
Shocked Every 3rd Time The Dog Barks
Shocked Every 3rd Time The Dog Barks
Shocked Every 3rd Time The Dog Barks
Shocked Every 3rd Time The Dog Barks
Shocked Every 3rd Time The Dog Barks
Week 4
Shocked Every 7th Time
Shocked Every 7th Time
Shocked Every 7th Time
Shocked Every 7th Time
Shocked Every 7th Time
Shocked Every 7th Time
Shocked Every 7th Time
In conclusion, operant conditioning is a valuable tool that can be applied to a wide array of situations requiring changes in behavior in both human beings and animals. Operant conditioning has been widely acclaimed as one of Skinner’s most important contributions to the field of psychology and plays an essential role in the success of reinforcing both positive and negative behaviors.
References
Hergenhahn, B., & Olson, M. (2009).
_An Introduction to Theories of Learning_ (7th ed.).
Boston: Prentice Hall Inc. .
McLeod, S. A. (2007).
_B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning_. Retrieved January 14, 2010, from http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/operant-conditioning.html
Robbins, S., & Judge, T. (2007).
_Organizational Behavior_ (12th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Wickens, J. (2009).
_Shaping Behavior – Schedules of Reinforcement_. Retrieved January 12, 2010, from http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/2468806/shaping_behavior_schedules_of_reinforcement.html?cat=3
