The French Revolution (1789-99) violently transformed France from a monarchical state with a rigid social hierarchy into a modern nation in which the social structure was loosened and power passed increasingly to the middle classes. There is considerable controversy over the causes of the Revolution. Marxist scholars emphasize material factors: as the population increased, food supplies grew short; land had become divided into such small parcels that most Frenchmen lived close to the subsistence level; and after 1776 agricultural recession forced property owners to exploit their sources of revenue. Marxists also maintain that commercial prosperity had stimulated the growth of a monied middle class that threatened the position of the established landed aristocracy. Other social historians emphasize the importance of the growing discrepancy between reality and the legally defined social structure, which distinguished men by hereditary or acquired rank and recognized corporate rather than individual rights. They also emphasize, however, the complexity of French society and question the importance of capitalism.
The first phase of the Revolution was marked by moral and physical violence. The National Assembly established a new legal structure by abolishing privileges, venality, and ‘feudal’ obligations (August 4); formulating a Declaration of Rights (August 26); and specifying basic constitutional principles that left the king as the chief executive officer but deprived him of any legislative power except a suspensive veto. In 1789-91, a comparatively peaceful period, the National Assembly did much to modernize France. Despite the Declaration of Rights, the reformed franchise still excluded the poor; but the public maintained its faith in freedom and unity. In 1791 the call for a clerical oath of loyalty crystallized the conflict between the new sovereignty and traditional loyalties and split the whole country. In 1791-92 the hard-won constitution collapsed.
The Essay on Social and Economic Structure of the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution is a term describing major changes in the economic and social structure of many western countries in the 1700's and 1800's. At the beginning of the 1700s most of Europe's people lived and worked on the land. By the time the 1800s ended, most Europeans were city dwellers, earning a living in factories or offices. As work became unavailable on the land, huge numbers of ...
On Apr. 20, 1792, the new Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria, which it believed to be instigating counterrevolutionary agitation and thus launched the French Revolutionary Wars. Born of this second revolution and briefly favored by military victory, the National Convention horrified Europe by establishing a republic (Sept. 22, 1792), inaugurating a policy of revolutionary war, and sending the king to the guillotine on Jan.
21, 1793. It also appalled France by its own furious disputes. Emergency bodies such as the Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal were then established, but unified leadership was lacking until the Parisian insurrection of June 2 compelled the Convention to expel the Girondists and accept Montagnard control. The Montagnard Convention then had to contend with invasion, royalist civil war, and widespread provincial revolts against ‘the dictatorship of Paris.’ Initially, Georges Danton tried to placate the provinces, and the democratic Constitution of 1793 was approved by plebiscite and celebrated at a Festival of Unity. After July, however, Maximilien Robespierre’s influence prevailed, and armies were sent to subdue rebellious cities. When the city of Toulon voluntarily surrendered to the British, a demonstration in Paris compelled the National Convention to establish (September 5) the repressive regime known as the Terror.
A fearful time ensued: the Committee of Public Safety strove to organize the economy and the war effort; the Revolutionary Tribunal sent state prisoners, including the Girondists, to the guillotine; and agents of the Convention known as Representatives of the People enforced bloody repression throughout France. During the ensuing period (1794-95) of the Thermidorian Reaction, government was so weakened that anarchy and runaway inflation almost overwhelmed the republic. In the southeast the royalists conducted a ‘white terror,’ and in Paris gangs of draft-dodgers, called la jeune sse dore e (‘gilded youth’), persecuted the patriots. The death (1795) of the imprisoned dauphin (titular King Louis XVII) and an unsuccessful royalist landing in Brittany also checked the reaction toward monarchy, enabling the Convention to complete the Constitution of 1795. This liberal settlement was approved by plebiscite, and it took effect after a reactionary rising in Vendemiaire (Oct. 5, 1795) had been suppressed by General Napoleon Bonaparte (the future Emperor Napoleon I) with what he described as ‘a whiff of grapeshot.’ The Constitution of 1799 established the Consulate with Bonaparte as First Consul.
The Term Paper on Jacques Louis David Revolution Napoleon Painting
David was the virtual art dictator of France for a generation. Extending beyond painting, his influence determined the course of fashion, furniture design, and interior decoration and was reflected in the development of moral philosophy. His art was a sudden and decisive break with tradition, and from this break 'modern art' is dated. David studied with Vien, and after winning the Prix de Rome ( ...
He used his power to effect a remarkable reorganization of France, most notably reestablishing centralized control and restoring Catholicism by the Concordat of 1801. Constitutional controls and republican institutions were nonetheless steadily eroded until the creation of the First Empire (1804-15) ended the revolutionary period. The most concrete results of the French Revolution were probably achieved in 1789-91, when land was freed from customary burdens and the old corporate society was destroyed. The great reforms of 1789-91 nevertheless established an enduring administrative and legal system, and much of the revolutionaries’ work in humanizing the law itself was subsequently incorporated in the Napoleonic Code. Politically, the revolution was more significant than successful. Since 1789 the French government has been either parliamentary and constitutional or based on the plebiscitary system that Napoleon inherited and developed.
The Revolution nevertheless freed the state from the trammels of its medieval past, releasing such unprecedented power that the revolutionaries could defy, and Napoleon conquer, the rest of Europe. Moreover, that power acknowledged no restraint: in 1793 unity was imposed on the nation by the Terror. Europe and the world have ever since been learning what infringements of liberty can issue from the concepts of national sovereignty and the will of the people.
