Research Paper 11

Introduction Water is one of the basic necessities and needs for survival. They say we can live for several days without food but not without water. We cannot ensure the water that we drink coming from the wells and from the water being supplied by our government. People may find ways on how to ensure safety and clean drinking water. Water business started to get popular with the production of distilled and mineral bottled water. Companies produce a lot of bottled water every day and consumers who are always on the go to bring with them a bottle wherever they go.

After several years, the production of distilled and mineral bottled water became popular to the people and environmentalists complained about the waste produced by these bottles. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 3. 4 million people die annually from water related diseases. About a million Filipinos get sick with water-borne diseases yearly. And these are diarrhea cases alone. We cannot ensure of the water that we are drinking today. We can get diseases if we are not aware of what we drink.

The supply and demand of water refilling station- water store that sell purified water is now increasing. The quality of purified water conforms to the national standards for drinking water is even better than the quality of water produced by traditional water supply systems in terms of removed impurities. Even in the 1920’s, 5 gallon bottled water coolers were cluttering our hallways and offices. Bottled water was extremely popular because the municipal water quality (especially in urban areas) was very poor, and water borne illnesses were common.

The Term Paper on Water Bottle Rockets

Introduction A water bottle rocket is essentially that; a bottle modified in the image of a rocket then filled with a select amount of water that is pressurised and launched into the air due to the forces pushing the rocket upwards from the launcher. When the completed water bottle rocket is sitting on the launcher, the force of the surface of the launcher pushes the rocket up whilst gravity drags ...

Filtrine, as one of the first manufacturers of water filters, saw an opportunity to leverage its success in the filtration business by producing a combination filter/cooler/dispenser. Unlike the bottle coolers, the Filtrine unit would hook up to a buildings’ existing plumbing system. In 1922, electric refrigerators were in their infancy and were very expensive, so the Filtrine cooler consisted of an ice box that required periodic refilling with ice to remain cool. While crude by today’s standards, the models in the 1922 Filtrine catalog represent the first commercially available water coolers that resemble what we see today.

Beyond the cooling and filtering, Filtrine also recognized the need for building occupants to stay hydrated by refilling a personal container (typically water glasses in those days) and return to their work areas. Filtrine introduced the Model 101 (pictured above) and the first glass/bottle filling station was born. The model 101 mounted directly above an sink and utilized the existing basin (similar in concept to modern combination bottle filler/drinking fountains, like the Filtrine model 107-16-HL-VP).

Inside the cabinet was an ice chamber for cooling and a carbon filtration system.

It also included the original Filtrine ionized filter sheets to remove suspended particles and heavy metals. Along with the Model 101 for glass filling, Filtrine offered a free-standing Model 103, that included a traditional bubbler head for dispensing Filtrine purified water. An original example of the 1920’s 103 is still on display at our factory museum in New Hampshire. For more information on the original filling station or original drinking water cooler models, please click the link at the bottom of this page to download the scanned copy (.

pdf) of the original literature from 1922. In the history of water station, In 1997, Solerex ventured into the water refilling stations business. Utilizing its expertise and supplier channels in reverse osmosis, water filtration, and purification systems, the Company was able to offer the market superior equipment at a relatively low cost. This, coupled with the strong name recall of the Crystal Clear brand, enabled Solerex to expand at a fast rate, building the 3rd most extensive water stations franchise store network in the country after only two years.

The Term Paper on Equatorial Pacific Water Warm Years

El Ni o, it was learned, is as much an atmospheric event as an oceanic one. The winds and the waters communicate with each other halfway around the world. (Johnson) In a normal year, the trade winds blow from South America to Asia, pushing warm water to the far reaches of the western equatorial Pacific. During an El Ni o, this pool of warm water sloshes across the Pacific to Peru as the normal ...

By the year 1999, Solerex seeks the professional services of FRANCORP, a franchise development specialist. Also this year, popular Philippine TV and movie celebrity, Ms. Lorna Tolentino became the endorser and franchise holder of Crystal Clear Water Refilling Station (WRS).

After three years in the business, Crystal Clear franchise network expanded to 150 stores. By this year the Rabana Group of Indonesia acquired the Master Franchise of Crystal Clear WRS in Indonesia. In 2001, PT SOLEREX Rabana Indonesia opened its first water store under the Crystal Clear Trademark.

After two years, the PALMAGRO Holdings of Malaysia obtained the Master Franchise of CC WRS for Singapore and Malaysia. Moreover, by the year 2003, SWTI and Crystal Clear’s President, Mr. Jose Antonio Soler received the award as One of the Top Ten Entrepreneur of the Year by the Entrepreneur Magazine. Various commendations were given to both mother franchisor, SOLEREX and Crystal Clear by several prestigious organizations. The National Consumers Affairs Foundation awarded SOLEREX for Most Outstanding Water Technology System while Most Outstanding Purified Drinking Water Brand for CC.

Another citation was given to CC and Solerex from the Parangal ng Bayan Foundation, Inc. and Gintong Sikap respectively. Background of the Study In the Philippines, bottled water has established. In some places, piped-water system are lacking people are uncertain about biological contaminants, disinfectant by-product from the chlorination process, taste and odor. Even in the capital Manila, only about three fourths of the population receives piped-water from the municipal authority. Outside Manila far fewer people have access to clean water distribution.

In both locations, these families must find alternate water sources if they are to avoid cholera epidemics and other health problems spawned by the foul, contaminated water available in their neighbourhoods. In Metro Manila, most of the water refilling station is connected to the pipes of two concessionaries: MAYNILAD Water Company for their source of raw water while in other areas they obtain to use private deep wells. The “potable water” supplied by the providers in then further purified by utilizing a combination of water treatment equipment, such as sediment filters, carbon filters, water softener, ultra-violet lamps and ozone generators.

The Essay on Marketing Product Dove

STP Segment Target Group Personal Health Care – Soap , Hair Care &Deodorants Targets women of all ages, shapes & sizes Dove is committed to help all women realise their personal beauty potential by creating products that deliver real care. Positioning SWOT 1. Dove contains 1/4 moisturizing cream 2. Zero pH levels 3. Flagship product of HUL with strong brand awareness through advertising ...

Checking the source of the water for Deep Well, NAWASA, MAYNILAD, or Any Water District are also included in site checking to check the TDS of water and examine it for laboratory to know what’s the best equipment or filtration are needed. However, it is not the number of stages the water goes through a process that makes water clean, but its performance in reducing contaminants. At present, about 3,000 water refilling stations have proliferated nationwide. They sell purified water of comparable quality with bottled water at a low price.

For example, the current price per gallon of refilled purified water in Metro Manila ranges from P50 to P120 per 5-gallon container or about P2. 50 to P6. 00 per liter while the bottled water is sold at P12. 00 to P25. 00 per liter. Household filters, on the other hand, cost P5, 000 to P25, 000 per unit. In Marikina City as well as in other national cities, operation of these WRS’s depends on the approval of the Local Health Office which simply follows the guidelines indicated in the Supplemental Implementing Rules and Regulations on Water Supply, a Presidential Decree 865.

This guideline defines the requirements and standards that call for strict compliance before a permit to operate WRS is issued. It also prescribes a continued evaluation and monitoring thereafter. However in the guidelines, the quality of the product water is simply measured by analyses of water samples taken after the water purification process which is before the processed water is filled into the 5-gallon bottles. The procedures like the washing and sanitizing of all the containers,

refilling and capping of the product water into the bottle containers, protection of the product water, and transport of the product water from the refilling station to the household of the consumers are not assessed. Unfortunately, these steps can likewise render the product water at risk for contamination due to improper handling and long unprotected storage periods. Hence, the results of the water analyses done by the City Health Office as part of its regular evaluation and monitoring may not speak well of the true quality of the product water subscribed by consumers.

The Research paper on Service Marketing Study

Module outcomesxv Work programmexv Warning against plagiarismxv Study unit 1What is service marketing? 1 1. 1Introduction2 1. 2What are services? 2 1. 3Why services marketing? 3 1. 4Service and technology4 1. 5Characteristics of services compared to goods6 1. 6Services marketing mix? 8 1. 7Staying focused on the customer? 9 1. 8Summary9 1. 9Discussion questions9 1. 10Read the case study on p. 153 ...

In the recent past decade, one of the most popular industries that has boom is the water refilling station (WRS) business. Water Refilling Stations are small water systems that have its own water purification facility producing potable drinking water in 5-gallon bottles. These stations purify water sourced from either a private deep well or a water line tapped from the local public water system. With an affordable amount as a capital investment, many opted to establish this kind of business. Today, the water refilling stations has widely spread that one can see one station almost in every corner of Brgy.

Fortune, Marikina City. The barangay office has a records of 7 operating water refilling stations as of today. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Marketing Branding and marketing of bottled water is as essential as water for the survival of the human body. The traditional marketing tools include site advertisements, TV and print media advertising and brochures. This study allocates 10% of the revenue for advertising and promotional purposes. Apart from the traditional marketing tools, this study suggests to focus more on other marketing magnets that include interactive marketing.

Interactive marketing may include educating the general public about the importance of water and its daily consumption requirements for human body through the participation in seminars and in general public gatherings (e. g. College and university gatherings).

One of the marketing options is to sponsor public events like cricket matches or hospital campaigns, distributing free brochures about water and its daily consumption, water requirements in different age brackets. The interactive marketing may be designed through

seminars and workshops about the daily human consumption requirements and diseases originating from the lack of pure water. Over all marketing strategy may change with the change of target market. A market research study is recommended to design the different dynamics of marketing before launching the new brand. Marketing expense has been included in the total project cost and it has been estimated around Rs. 5 million. The entrepreneur may decide to increase or decrease the amount of marketing expense depending upon his choice of promotion activities and type of media used.

The Business plan on Market Plan Cafe Internet Marketing Business

Marketing Plan for INTERNET CAF " ES IN Indictable Of Contents 1 Executive Summary 22 Situation Analysis 32. 1 Market Summary 42. 1. 1 Market Demographics 52. 1. 2 Market Needs 62.1. 3 Market Trends 72. 1. 4 Market Growth 92. 2 SWOT Analysis 102. 3 Competition 142.4 Services 142. 5 Keys to Success 162. 6 Critical Issues 162. 7 Macro Environment 173. 0 Marketing Strategy 173. 1 Mission 183.2 ...

Following table gives the break up of the marketing expense. Pricing The pricing strategy should be in line with the going rate market prices of the different local brands. Since a new brand has to face a lot of competition from the market, it is suggested that the price ceiling should not be crossed what ever price strategy be adopted. Product Packaging Product packaging and presentation is one of the main dynamics which control the flow of target customers towards the product. Packaging should be inline with the industrial norms. Packaging may also vary with the understanding of the target market.

It is suggested that the bottles of 0. 5 liter and 1. 5 liter capacity should be used. Bottles should be clear. The bottle should give a reflection of light sky blue color, which is considered a natural symbol of the water. This color also adds a tinge of purity. The water should give a shiny and a glossy reflection. The opening of the bottle should be large enough to accommodate outflow and inflow of water. The bottles should be placed in special racks and stands meant for bottled water at retail outlets, which will be having a unique color and a unique design.

The color and the design will create a positive perception for the new brand. The wrapper of the bottle is suggested to be in four color printing and should have the following information in addition to the logo of the company. ? Water Specifications ? Certificate mark of the Pakistan Standards & Quality Control Authority ? Expiry Date (Best Before Date) ? A brief intro of the company with address ? Website address of the company ? Brand Name / Trade Name ? Net volume in System International / Metric System ? Batch Number or code number Availability

In the first phase of the launch of the new brand, availability will also play the key role in attracting the customers. It is suggested that the entrepreneur decides the availability of the product at A-class, B-class, or C-class retail outlets or mass availability of the product (aggressive marketing).

Since, the perception of the product is also directly related with its availability so it is suggested that the strategy for the availability of the product be designed according to the target market and the perception and positioning the entrepreneur is targeting. THE RESEARCH PARADIGM

The Essay on A study of quality work life

Certified that this project report titled “A STUDY ON QUALITY OF WORKLIFE AT TVS LOGISTICS SERVICE LTD” is the bonafide work of Mr. S. Senthilkumar who carried out the research under my supervision. Certified further, that to the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not from part of any other project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an ...

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This study will investigate on the success factor of WATER REFILLING STATION BUSINESS at BARANGAY FORTUNE, MARIKINA CITY. It will seek answers to the following questions: 1. What are the strengths of the Water Refilling Station business? 2. What are the weaknesses of the Water Refilling Station business? 3. What are the opportunities of Water Refilling Station business? 4. What are the threats of the Water Refilling Station business? 5. What are the marketing strategies used to increase volume of sales? 6. What are the marketing strategies used to increase number of customers?

7. Is there a significant difference among opinions of the respondents’ regarding the strengths and weaknesses of the water refilling stations when grouped according to gender? 8. Is there a significant difference among opinions of the respondents’ regarding the strengths and weaknesses of the water refilling stations when grouped according to age? HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY Null hypothesis There is no significance difference among opinion of the respondents’ regarding the strength and weaknesses of the water refilling stations when group according to gender.

There is no significance difference among opinion of the respondents’ regarding the strength and weaknesses of the water refilling stations when group according to age. Alternative hypothesis There is significance difference among opinion of the respondents’ regarding the strength and weaknesses of the water refilling stations when group according to gender. There is significance difference among opinion of the respondents’ regarding the strength and weaknesses of the water refilling stations when group according to age. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This section will provide brief description on the various significances of the study given the three categories Educational, Business and Economic. To Students. The proposed study serves the students as their reference or guide in creating their thesis. And as students, being the main participants, will gain knowledge and experience to improve our skills. To Professors. It will help them to provide sample in discussing how to conduct a research study or a thesis and guiding their students in creating thesis. To Water Refilling Station Operators.

This study will help them to improve their business strategies and eliminate those problems they have to earn more profit and less expense. To Local Government Units. The proposed study will help the Government to be Aware for the health of the people by implementing the rules and the regulations prescribing sanitary standards for water supply systems, including water refilling stations. To Consumers. The proposed study will help the consumers to know that drinking water from water stations is clean and safe to drink . To Future Researchers. To Help them develop their skill and knowledge by doing a research activity.

And provide them an example how to create a case study. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY This study will involves the seven (7) Water Refilling Station Business in Brgy. Fortune, Marikina City, namely: Wilcare Purified Drinking Station, Aqualine Water System, Water Element, Alkafill Natural Alkaline Water, SGG Water Station, Biozone Water Station, and Echofresh Purified Drinking Water on how they operate their business. This Water Station Business has a total of eleven (11) employees. And a total of seventy one(71) customers. The study covers September to October 2013 operation. DEFINITION OF TERMS

Alkaline water – the newest technology in the market today, it is otherwise called as “MEDICINAL WATER” because of its health benefits. Carbon filtering – a method of filtering that uses a bed of activated carbon to remove contaminants and impurities, using chemical absorption. Distilled water – is water that has many of its impurities removed through distillation. Distillation involves boiling the water and then condensing the steam into a clean container. Electro dialysis – a type of dialysis in which undesired ions are removed from solution by means of a direct current passing between two electrodes, one on each side of the membrane.

Ionized water – drinking water that has undergone a process known as ionization. Essentially, this process segregates the acid and alkaline content found in H2O. Micro filtration – the separation or removal from a liquid of particulates and microorganisms in the size range of 0. 1 to 0. 2 microns in diameter. Mineral water – a process to which water undergoes through series of filtration and this disinfected to be safe. The natural minerals of the water that our body needs are retained.

Osmosis – the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a partially permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on two sides. Ozone generator – apparatus that converts oxygen(O2) into ozone(O3) by subjecting the oxygen to an electric-brush discharge. Also known as “ozonizer”. potable water – a water safe enough to be consumed by humans or used with low risk of immediate or long term harm. Purified water- a purification process done in which 99% of the mineral contents of the water are being eliminated.

This water is deal to be diluted to baby’s infant milk. This quality of water is similar to distilled water. It is also turned as “HUNGRY WATER”. Reverse osmosis (RO) – a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable membrane. This membrane-technology is not properly a filtration method. Sediment filter – any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of water or other liquid. Sterilized Water – is water that has been sterilized, to ensure an absence of any bacteria in the water.

It is used for mixing infant formula for babies, for people with compromised immune systems, and to dilute or dissolve water soluble drugs for injections. Ultra filtration – a variety of membrane filtration in which hydrostatic pressure forces a liquid against a semi-permeable membrane. Suspended solids and solutes of high molecular weight are retained. Ultraviolet Oxidation Water Purification – water purification in which organic pollutants are removed. A small amount of hydrogen peroxide, a chemical oxidant, is added oxidant, is added to the contaminated water.. Water ionizer – is an appliance that ionizes water.

Although there is no empirical evidence that ionized water is beneficial to human health, it is marketed with claims that it is an antioxidant and can slow aging and prevent disease. Water softener – a device that monitors and reduces the hardness of the water. Water treatment – a process for enhancing the quality of water so that it meets the water quality criteria for its fitness for the intended use. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES FOREIGN LITERATURE Packaged water: optimizing local processes for sustainable water delivery in developing nations Correspondence: Ayokunle C Dada

com With so much global attention and commitment towards making the Water and Sanitation targets of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) a reality, available figures seem to speak on the contrary as they reveal a large disparity between the expected and what currently obtains especially in developing countries. As studies have shown that the standard industrialized world model for delivery of safe drinking water technology may not be affordable in much of the developing world, packaged water is suggested as a low cost, readily available alternative water provision that could help bridge the gap.

Despite the established roles that this drinking water source plays in developing nations, its importance is however significantly underestimated, and the source considered unimproved going by ‘international standards’. Rather than simply disqualifying water from this source, focus should be on identifying means of improvement. The need for intervening global communities and developmental organizations to learn from and build on the local processes that already operate in the developing world is also emphasized.

Identifying packaged water case studies of some developing nations, the implication of a tenacious focus on imported policies, standards and regulatory approaches on drinking water access for residents of the developing world is also discussed. Background The development and use of water portends wide-ranging implications for global survival, security, health and economic development [1]. This demands the need for water issues to be tackled at the highest political level.

Consequently, enshrined in international covenants and attested to by world nation’s heads are the MDGs, one of which is to halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to portable water and basic sanitation. Today, more than halfway into the deadlines, available figures reveal a large disparity between the expected and the achieved [2]. Following a general paraphrase of the paper in the first section, the gruesome challenges that make achievement of the Millennium Development Goals daunting task in the developing world is described in the second section of this paper.

Given the prevailing social and technical cost needed to revitalize or put in place functional public institutions, associated technologies and political will power, it is much undoubted that the standard industrialized world model for delivery of safe drinking water technology may not be affordable in much of the developing world in the foreseeable future [3], the third section suggests packaged water as one of the low cost alternative water provision that could help bridge the gap. As presented in the fourth section of this paper, despite the established role

that this drinking water source plays in developing economies and populations, its importance is significantly underestimated. The fifth section highlights a view point that promotes identification of means of improvement rather than disqualification of local provisions and processes in a bid to safeguard public health. Using relevant case studies, it also suggests possible implication of irrational adoption of global policies on water supply access for residents of the developing world. The sixth section concludes. http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161851/

Water Refilling Station: A Good Source of Clean Drinking Water By: Charles Ratliff We can often hear businessmen say that “water is money. ” This is indeed true for so many reasons and one of which is that a lot of people are now selling clean, drinking water. The demand of buying water from water refilling stations continues to increase. Some people are getting conscious of their water intake and they are not satisfied or feel safe in drinking water from their own faucets at home. Water is one of our basic necessities and as they say we can live for several days without food but not without water.

Water business started to get popular with the production of distilled and mineral bottled water. Companies produce a lot of bottled water everyday and consumers who are always on the go bring with them a bottle or two wherever they go. But then, after several years, environmentalists complained about the waste produced by these bottles. Government came up with an answer and started telling people to recycle their plastic bottles. Furthermore, companies producing bottled water had the idea of putting up purified water refilling stations which completely made a difference in the market.

http://valdezoboy. wordpress. com/category/drinking-water-business/a-study-on-water-refilling-station/ Water quality The quality of any body of surface or ground water is a function of either both natural influences and human influences. Without human influences water quality would be determined by the weathering of bedrock minerals, by the atmospheric processes of evapotranspiration and the deposition of dust and salt by wind, by the natural leaching of organic matter and nutrients from

soil, by hydrological factors that lead to runoff, and by biological processes within the aquatic environment that can alter the physical and chemical composition of water. Typically, water quality is determined by comparing the physical and chemical characteristics of a water sample with water quality guidelines or standards. Drinking water quality guidelines and standards are designed to enable the provision of clean and safe water for human consumption, thereby protecting human health.

These are usually based on scientifically assessed acceptable levels of toxicity to either humans or aquatic organisms. Declining water quality has become a global issue of concern as human populations grow, industrial and agricultural activities expand, and climate change threatens to cause major alterations to the hydrological cycle. Globally, the most prevalent water quality problem is eutrophication, a result of high-nutrient loads (mainly phosphorus and nitrogen), which substantially impairs beneficial uses of water.

Major nutrient sources include agricultural runoff, domestic sewage (also a source of microbial pollution), industrial effluents and atmospheric inputs from fossil fuel burning and bush fires. Lakes and reservoirs are particularly susceptible to the negative impacts of eutrophication because of their complex dynamics, relatively longer water residence times and their role as an integrating sink for pollutants from their drainage basins. Nitrogen concentrations exceeding 5 milligrams per litre of water often indicate pollution from human and animal waste or fertilizer runoff from agricultural areas.

An emerging water quality concern is the impact of personal care products and pharmaceuticals, such as birth control pills, painkillers and antibiotics, on aquatic ecosystems. Little is known about their long-term human or ecosystem impacts, although some are believed to mimic natural hormones in humans and other species. Poor water quality has a direct impact on water quantity in a number of ways. Polluted water that cannot be used for drinking, bathing, industry or agriculture effectively reduces the amount of useable water within a given area.

http://www. un. org/waterforlifedecade/quality. shtml Recent developments in photo catalytic water treatment technology: A review By: Meng Nan Chong, Bo Jin, Christopher W K Chow, Chris Saint Increasing demand and shortage of clean water sources due to the rapid development of industrialisation, population growth and long-term droughts have become an issue worldwide. With this growing demand, various practical strategies and solutions have been adopted to yield more viable water resources.

The storage of rainwater for daily activities and increasing the catchment capacity for storm water are just a few examples that could resolve the problems in short-term. Water industries and governments in some arid areas with abundant of sunlight, less rainfall and long-term drought have a challenge to seek viable water resources. It is estimated that around 4 billion people worldwide experience to have no or little access to clean and sanitised water supply, and millions of people died of severe waterborne diseases annually (Malato et al.

, 2009).

These statistical figures are expected to grow in the short future, as increasing water contamination due to overwhelming discharge of micro pollutants and contaminants into the natural water cycle (Wintgens et al. , 2008 and Richardson, 2008; Suarez et al. , 2008).

In view to suppress the worsening of clean water shortage, development of advanced with low-cost and high efficiency water treatment technologies to treat the wastewater is desirable.

One of a few attractive options is the possible reuse of onsite rural wastewater or the treated municipal wastewater from treatment plants for agricultural and industrial activities (Bradley et al. , 2002 and Lapena et al. , 1995).

Since these wastewaters constitute one of the largest possible water resources, its reuse is anticipated to offset more clean water resource. Recycling wastewaters are usually associated with the presence of suspended solids, health-threat coliforms and soluble refractory organic compounds that are both tedious and expensive to treat (Viessman and Hammer, 1998).

Currently available water treatment technologies such as adsorption or coagulation merely concentrate the pollutants present by transferring them to other phases, but still remain and not being completely “eliminated” or “destroyed” (Padmanabhan et al. , 2006).

Other conventional water treatment methods such as sedimentation, filtration, chemical and membrane technologies involve high operating costs and could generate toxic secondary pollutants into the ecosystem (Gaya and Abdullah, 2008).

These concentrated toxic contaminants are highly redundant and have been concerned worldwide

due to the increasing environmental awareness and legislations. Chlorination has been the most commonly and widely used disinfection process. The disinfection by-products generated from chlorination are mutagenic and carcinogenic to human health ( Yang and Cheng, 2007, Lu et al. , 2009 and Coleman et al. , 2005).

These have lead to the rapid R&D in the field of “Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)” as the innovative water treatment technologies. The rationales of these AOPs are based on the in-situ generation of highly reactive transitory species (i. e.

H2O2, OH, O2–, O3) for mineralization of refractory organic compounds, water pathogens and disinfection by-products (Esplugas et al. , 2002 and Pera-Titus et al. , 2004).

Among these AOPs, heterogeneous photo catalysis employing semiconductor catalysts (TiO2, ZnO, Fe2O3, CdS, GaP and ZnS) has demonstrated its efficiency in degrading a wide range of ambiguous refractory organics into readily biodegradable compounds, and eventually mineralized them to innocuous carbon dioxide and water. Among the semiconductor catalysts, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has received the greatest interest in R&D of photo catalysis technology.

The TiO2 is the most active photo catalyst under the photon energy of 300 nm < ? < 390 nm and remains stable after the repeated catalytic cycles, whereas Cds or GaP are degraded along to produce toxic products (Malato et al. , 2009).

Other than these, the multi-faceted functional properties of TiO2 catalyst, such as their chemical and thermal stability or resistance to chemical breakdown and their strong mechanical properties have promoted its wide application in photocatalytic water treatment.

A number of important features for the heterogeneous photocatalysis have extended their feasible applications in water treatment, such as; (1) ambient operating temperature and pressure, (2) complete mineralization of parents and their intermediate compounds without secondary pollution and (3) low operating costs. The fact that the highly reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated as a result of the photo-induced charge separation on TiO2 surfaces for microbial inactivation and organic mineralization without creating any secondary pollution is well-documented.

So far, the application of such TiO2 catalysts for water treatment is still experiencing a series of technical challenges. The post-separation of the semiconductor TiO2 catalyst after water treatment remains as the major obstacle towards the practicality as an industrial process. The fine particle size of the TiO2, together with their large surface area-to-volume ratio and surface energy creates a strong tendency for catalyst agglomeration during the operation. Such particles agglomeration is highly detrimental in views of particles size preservation, surface-area reduction and its reusable lifespan.

Other technical challenges include in the catalysts development with broader photoactivity range and its integration with feasible photocatalytic reactor system. In addition, the understanding of the theory behind the common reactor operational parameters and their interactions is also inadequate and presents a difficult task for process optimization. A number of commonly made mistakes in studying kinetic modelling on either the photomineralization or photo-disinfection have also been seen over the years.

This review paper aims to give an overview of the understanding and development of photocatalytic water treatment technology, from fundamentals of catalyst and photoreactor development, to process optimization and kinetics modelling, and eventually the water parameters that affects the process efficiency. A short outlines of the feasible application of photocatalytic water technology via life cycle interpretation and the possible future challenges are also recommended. http://www. sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/S0043135410001739 LOCAL LITERATURE BUSINESS OF WATER IN THE PHILIPPINES

Everybody drinks water. Everybody is concerned about their health. It doesn’t come as a surprise, therefore, that the water business remains lucrative. Small and independent businesses still take in profits even if big companies have their own water brands. If we come to think of it, it’s ironic that water has become more expensive than soft drinks or even gasoline and other petroleum products. How to start a water business. One way to start is to get a franchise. Because of the franchise fee, which is an added cost in starting the business, others prefer to buy the equipment directly from suppliers.

The drawback of this is that the Pinoy Entrepreneurs would not have the expertise and business processes which automatically come with a franchise. How much capital to prepare depends on whether you get the equipment from suppliers or acquire a franchise — it could range from P200,000 to a million pesos. Of course, you have to decide what business entity to organize and to register it. Capturing a market. As mentioned, big beverage companies have their own water brands and you see water stations in just about every corner here in the Metro.

Many water refilling stations are expected to sprout because this is a lucrative business (and many will fold because of that competition).

One major consideration before going into the water business is your market and how to capture it. Relying on walk-in clients would put you at the mercy of more established water stations and big companies that could afford lowering their prices (but also make sure to keep down operating expenses to be flexible with the pricing).

Cultivate a network of households that you’ll service regularly. Contemplate value-added service like deliveries.

Be the friendly neighborhood water store. Regulating the sale of water. A bill is currently pending in Congress, proposing a law that regulates the sale of drinking water. House Bill 2606, known as the “Safe Bottled Water Act”, requires the Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD) to strictly monitor the quality of drinking water sold by the bottle or through refilling stations. The bill acknowledges the fact that bottled water consumption has increased tremendously due to questions on the quality of tap water. Bottle water the same as tap water.

There are reports which say that “bottled water sold in markets and convenience stores may be no more free of pollutants than the water that pours from the kitchen tap at a fraction of the cost. ” The study, however, is in the US, where it is reported that Americans drank 8. 8 billion gallons at a cost of $10. 3 billion in 2007. This may not apply in the Philippines, although tap water is still regularly consumed in the provinces. In the end, either because of increased pollution or increased health-consciousness of people, the demand for bottled water will grow.

It still remains a good business opportunity. http://pinoy-business. com/business-opportunities/business-of-water-in-the-philippines GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY The Philippines is comprised of 7,110 islands with a land area of about 300,000 square kilometers. The country has a total of 96,000 square kilometers of agricultural land which is about 32% of the total land area. These lands are utilized for plantation of palay, corn, fruit, trees, root crops, vegetables, coconut,sugar cane and others. July, 2004 census of Philippine population is 86.

2 million and projected to reach 100 million in 14 years. The current population growth rate is 2. 71% or 3 persons born per minute. Existing settlement patterns show that 48. 05% of the population live in urban areas while the rest in rural areas. There are about 85,000 manufacturing industries in the Philippines, with Metro Manila as the prime industrial region. Accounting for about 52% of the total manufacturing establishments. These establishments are classified into thirty (30) major industrial groups. Food manufacturing constitutes the biggest number of manufacturing establishments in the country.

With the rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization reduce the quality of Philippine waters, especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and agricultural activities. The discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater and agricultural runoff has caused extensive pollution of the receiving water-bodies. This effluent is in the form of raw sewage, detergents, fertilizer, heavy metals, chemical products, oils, and even solid waste. Each of these pollutants has a different noxious effect that influences human livelihood and translates into economic costs.

“The adverse impact of water pollution costs the economy an estimated Php67 Billion annually (more than US$1. 3 Billion).

The government continues its fight against worsening water pollution by espousing and including among its priorities, environment policies, legislation, and decrees that address the growing need to control water pollution. In the last few years, the government has employed economic instruments such as pollution fines and environmental taxes. ” Access to clean and adequate water remains an acute seasonal problem in urban and coastal areas in the Philippines.

The National Capital Region (Metro Manila), Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog, and Central Visayas are the four urban critical regions in terms of water quality and quantity. The Government’s monitoring data indicates: • Just over a third or 36 percent of the country’s river systems are classified as sources of public water supply: • Up to 58 percent of groundwater sampled is contaminated with coliform and needs treatment; • Approximately 31 percent of illness monitored for a five-year period were caused by water-borne sources; and • Many areas are experiencing a shortage of water supply during the dry season. Nearly 2.

2 million metric tons of of organic pollution are produced annually by domestic (48 percent), agricultural (37 percent), and industrial (15 percent) sectors. In the four water-critical regions, water pollution is dominated by domestic and industrial sources. Untreated wastewater affects health by spreading disease-causing bacteria and viruses, makes water unfit for drinking and recreational use, threatens biodiversity, and deteriorates overall quality of life. Known diseases caused by poor water include gastro-enteritis, diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, and more recently, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).

The number of water-related health outbreaks including deaths reported in newspapers is going up. However, awareness regarding the need for improved sanitation and water pollution control, reflected by the willingness-to-pay and connection to a sewerage system where they are easily available, is very low. The annual economic losses caused by water pollution are estimated at Php67 Billion (US$1. 3 billion).

These include Php3 billion for health, Php17 billion for fisheries production, and Php47 for tourism.

Losses due to environmental damage in pollution, the Philippines has many water-related laws, but their enforcement is weak and beset with problems that include: inadequate resources, poor database, and weak cooperation among different agencies and Local Government Units (LGUs).

A Clean Water Act is now being deliberated in the Congress. There is considerable under-investment by the Government in sanitation and sewerage, indicating a low spending priority, though ranked as a high priority in the Philippines Agenda 21 of 1996. Only

seven percent of the country’s total population is connected to sewer systems and only a few households have acceptable effluent from on-site sanitation facilities. Estimates show that over a 10-year period, the country will need to invest Php250 billion (nearly US$ billion) in physical infrastructure. While LGUs recognize emerging water quality problems, they are constrained by high investment and operating costs, limited willingness-to-pay, restricted space available in the low-income urban areas where sewage is disposed of indiscriminately.

Some of the Government budget, which is directed mostly towards water supply (97 percent of the total), needs to be diverted to sewerage and sanitation. Individuals are not yet aware and willing to pay for these services and Government incentives are justified in the short-term for the larger community-wide benefits. http://www. wepa-db. net/policies/state/philippines/overview. htm Water Refilling Station: An Alternative Source of Drinking Water Supply in the Philippines by B. B. Magtibay The demand at the water refilling stations – water stores that sell purified water – is now increasing.

The quality of purified water conforms to the national standards for drinking water and is even better than the quality of water produced by traditional water supply systems in terms of removed impurities. Over the years, as the demand for cleaner water becomes higher, the price of household water purifiers and bottled water has become prohibitive. Water refilling stations managed by private entrepreneurs offer a cheaper and more convenient solution to the public’s drinking water needs than bottled water or the use of household filters.

At present, about 3,000 water refilling stations have proliferated nationwide. They sell purified water of comparable quality with bottled water at a lower price. For example, the current price per gallon of refilled purified water in Metro Manila ranges from P 50 to P 120 per 5-gallon container or about P 2. 50 to P 6. 00 per liter while the bottled water is sold at P 12. 00 to P 25. 00 per liter. Household filters, on the other hand, cost P 5,000 to P 25,000 per unit (1 US $ = P 56 in 2004).

In Metro Manila, most of the water refilling stations are connected to the pipes of two concessionaires: Maynilad Water Company or Manila Water Company for their source of raw water while in other areas they opt to use private deep wells. The “potable water” supplied by the providers is then further purified by utilizing a combination of water treatment equipment, such as sediment filters, carbon filters, water softeners, reverse osmosis membranes, ultra-violet lamps, and ozone generators. Typical water refilling stations can produce 3,000 to 12,000 litres of purified water per day.

In previous years, most of the people were bringing a container to a water refilling station to buy purified water. Nowadays, because of convenience on the part of the consumers, purified water in 5-gallon (22. 7 litres) containers are delivered by the station directly to the people’s home. Aqua Sure, a water refilling station in Metro Manila, can deliver 5,500 gallons (25,000 litres) a day to its 8,000 household clients. Features of a water refilling station Structurally, water refilling station can be operated with a minimum area of at least 20-25 square metres.

It comprises the following sections: refilling and selling room, enclosed water purification room, container washing and sanitizing room, storage room for empty and refilled containers, source water storage facility, toilet and an office. To operate the water store, about five employees are needed. 1 – Manager – Overseas store operations at least 4 hours a day 1 – Accountant/Bookkeeper – Makes financial statement of business operations 1 – Administrative assistant – Logs and handles cash sales and purchases 1 – Front Liner – Accepts and refills containers of customers 1 – Technical Asst.

– Maintains and runs the machine 1 – Driver/Delivery Man – Transport refilled containers to customer’s home The main processes in a water refilling station are dictated by raw water quality. The typical steps are filtration (several stages), softening, and disinfection. The machines that could be installed for such processes are the following: Multi-media sediment filter – removes sediments such as rust, sand and particles that are invisible to the naked eye; employs a total of 5 filters. Ion exchanger – replaces hard minerals with soft minerals.

Activated carbon filter – removes all organic chemicals, herbicide, pesticide, offensive odor and bad taste. Reverse osmosis membrane – the heart of the system and the most expensive unit; removes inorganic minerals, bacteria and viruses while retaining its oxygen content. Since the filter size is very small at less than 0. 05 micrometre, the product water could have a total dissolved solids (TDS) of less than 10 ppm. The filtration process rejects about 50 percent of raw water volume. Post-carbon filter – improves the taste of water.

Ultraviolet lamp – ensures that the water is free from disease-causing micro-organisms. Ozone generator – inhibits the growth of bacteria in the product tank and prolongs the shelf life of water. The efficiency of water purification system in removing impurities is high. The 10 water quality parameters measured by Magtibay (2001) showed an average of 80 percent efficiency. Institutions and policies The agencies directly involved in the establishment operation of water refilling stations are as follows: The Department of Health (DOH).

DOH is the main agency responsible for protecting the health of the people.

The Sanitation Code of the Philippines mandates DOH in protecting drinking water quality. Consequently, DOH issues implementing rules and regulations prescribing sanitary standards for water supply systems, including water refilling stations. The Center for Health Development (CHD) is the regional branch of DOH. Its main function is to provide technical assistance to local government units and to monitor DOH programme implementation which includes water quality and sanitation standards. For water refilling stations, CHD is mandated to issue initial and operational permits.

The Local Government Units (LGUs) are mandated by Presidential Decree (PD 856) to issue sanitary permit, sanitary clearance, health certificates, certificate of portability, drinking water site clearance and closure order (if necessary) and to conduct sanitary inspection of WRS. The Water Quality Association of the Philippines Inc. (WQAP) is an organization of private firms who are engaged in the manufacture, sale, and distribution of water refilling station equipment and supplies, as well as water treatment and purification equipment and technology for household, institutional, commercial and

industrial applications. About 85 percent of its 250 members operate water refilling stations. Association of Water Refilling Entrepreneurs (AWARE) concentrates on resolving business management issues of its members. Presidential Decree No. 856 (PD 856) or the Sanitation Code of the Philippines is the main law requiring all establishments to comply with existing sanitary standards to protect public health. Guidelines for operating a water refilling station are indicated in the Supplemental Implementing Rules and Regulations on Water Supply of PD 856 issued in 1999.

Water quality monitoring Source water and product water are subject to regular monitoring by the local health office. The national standard for drinking water contains 54 parameters that must be complied with. Only DOH-accredited laboratories are allowed to conduct water testing and analysis. The frequency of monitoring is as follows: Bacteriological quality – at least monthly Physical quality – at least every six (6) months Chemical quality – at least every six (6) months Biological quality – at least once a year

monitoring of radioactive contaminants shall be done only if there is significant input of radiation from the surrounding environment. Conclusions Water refilling stations can be a good source of safe drinking water in the Philippines. Purified water can meet the aesthetic standards easily detectable by the people in terms of taste, odor and color. The efficient water purification processes can make the quality of water superior to the traditional water systems. However, the risk of contamination is possible if the handling practices are not closely monitored. http://wedc-knowledge.

org Turning the Tide: Improving Water Resource Management in the Philippines Author :Senate Economic Planning Office SEPO Introduction Water is a basic human need, and access to it is regarded as a fundamental human right. For centuries, human progress and development has been dependent upon the ability of communities to access clean water and harness its potential as a productive resource. Many early Philippine societies were established along the country’s extensive coastline and along the banks of great rivers such as Cagayan River, Rio Grande de Mindanao, and Pasig River.

The role of water as a tool for progress and development has become increasingly important through the centuries. According to the 2006 United Nations Human Development Report (HDR), “water for life in the household and water for livelihoods through production are two of the foundations for human development. ” Unfortunately, water scarcity is already a serious problem in many developing countries across the globe. In the Philippines, 2010 data from the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB) revealed that 16 percent of all households remain without access to clean and potable water.

This situation is expected to worsen in the near future given the rising population that results in an increasing demand for the country’s already dwindling water supply. The dwindling water supply was brought about by decades of resource mismanagement, inadequate investments in physical infrastructure, and the growing threat of climate change. A study by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and National Water Resources Board (NWRB) estimated that all major cities in the Philippines will experience water shortages by 2025 (Table 1).

The Philippine national government has sole ownership and control over the country’s water resources, as provided by the 1987 Constitution. Section 2, Article XII of the Constitution states that “all lands of the public domain, waters, minerals, coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces of potential energy, fisheries, forests or timber, wildlife, flora and fauna, and other natural resources are owned by the State. ” In addition, “the exploration, development, and utilization of natural resources shall be under the full control and supervision of the State.

” However, the poor state of the country’s water resources reflects the national government’s inability to prevent resource degradation and ensure the provision of safe and adequate water supplies for the human population. Studies have attributed the government’s poor performance to weak regulatory institutions and the absence of a clear and organized framework for water resource governance. The purpose of this paper therefore is to propose policy measures that seek to address these issues and provide the impetus for sustainable water resource management in the country.

http://www. senate. gov. ph/publications/PB%25202011-08%2520-%2520Turning%2520the%2520Tide. pdf FOREIGN STUDIES Identification of bacteria in drinking and purified water during the monitoring of a typical water purification system Vessoni TC Penna*, Silva AM Martins and Priscila G Mazzolo Background A typical purification system that provides purified water which meets ionic and organic chemical standards, must be protected from microbial proliferation to minimize cross-contamination for use in cleaning and preparations in pharmaceutical industries and in health environments.

Methodology Samples of water were taken directly from the public distribution water tank at twelve different stages of a typical purification system were analyzed for the identification of isolated bacteria. Two miniature kits were used: (i) identification system (api 20 NE, Bio-Merieux) for non-enteric and non-fermenting gram-negative rods; and (ii) identification system (BBL crystal, Becton and Dickson) for enteric and non-fermenting gram-negative rods.

The efficiency of the chemical sanitizers used in the stages of the system, over the isolated and identified bacteria in the sampling water, was evaluated by the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) method. Results The 78 isolated colonies were identified as the following bacteria genera: Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium and Acinetobacter. According to the miniature kits used in the identification, there was a prevalence of isolation of P. aeruginosa 32. 05%, P. picketti (Ralstoniapicketti) 23. 08%, P. vesiculares 12. 82%,P. diminuta 11. 54%, F.

aureum 6. 42%, P. fluorescens 5. 13%, A. lwoffi 2. 56%,P. putida 2. 56%, P. alcaligenes 1. 28%, P. paucimobilis 1. 28%, and F. multivorum 1. 28%. Conclusions We found that research was required for the identification of gram-negative non-fermenting bacteria, which were isolated from drinking water and water purification systems, sincePseudomonas genera represents opportunistic pathogens which disperse and adhere easily to surfaces, forming a biofilm which interferes with the cleaning and disinfection procedures in hospital and industrial environments.

http://www. biomedcentral. com/1471-2458/2/13 Water and sanitation infrastructure for health: The impact of foreign aid Corresponding author: Edward J Mills Background The accessibility to improved water and sanitation has been understood as a crucial mechanism to save infants and children from the adverse health outcomes associated with diarrheal disease. This knowledge stimulated the worldwide donor community to develop a specific category of aid aimed at the water and sanitation sector.

The actual impact of this assistance on increasing population access to improved water and sanitation and reducing child mortality has not been examined. Methods We performed a country-level analysis of the relationship between water and sanitation designated official development assistance (WSS-ODA) per capita, waqter and sanitation coverage, and infant and child mortality in low-income countries as defined by the World Bank. We focused our inquiry to aid effectiveness since the establishment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

Results Access to improved water has consistently improved since 2002. Countries receiving the most WSS-ODA ranged from odds ratios of 4 to 18 times more likely than countries in the lowest tertile of assistance to achieve greater gains in population access to improved water supply. However, while there were modestly increased odds of sanitation access, these were largely non-significant. The countries with greatest gains in sanitation were 8-9 times more likely to have greater reductions in infant and child mortality.

Conclusions Official development assistance is importantly impacting access to safe water, yet access to improved sanitation remains poor. This highlights the need for decision-makers to be more intentional with allocating WSS-ODA towards sanitation projects. http://www. globalizationandhealth. com/content/6/1/12 Water Purification Project Medical Missionaries Study Design By Rita Baumgartner January 2009 Project Title: Point-of-use Interventions for Safer Drinking Water.

Purpose of the Study: Increasing sustainable access to clean drinking water is an essential step in promoting health in developing countries. The World Bank’s Millennium Development Goals call for a 50% reduction in the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2015 (MDG7, Target 10).

Drinking water can be contaminated with disease-causing bacteria, parasites, and viruses at the source, within the delivery system, or during transport to homes for use. Each year, over 1.

8 million people around the world die from diarrheal diseases and this burden of disease falls very highly on children under five years of age: over 90% of deaths from diarrhea are among children under five years old (Nath et al. , 2006).

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that up to 94% of diarrheal illness is preventable with interventions to increase availability of clean water and through improved sanitation and hygiene. In 2006, a Cochrane review of randomized trials suggested that point-of-use (POU) water quality interventions are essential in reducing death and illness from diarrhea.

Point-of-use water quality interventions are interventions that affect the quality of water from where it is accessed in the community as opposed to treatment at the source or changes to the infrastructure. Examples of POU interventions include large slow-sand filters at community water pumps, household filters, boiling water in the home, chlorine and other chemical disinfectants used in the home, and UV or sunlight treatment. POU interventions are also sometimes referred to as “household water treatment and safe storage interventions” or “HWTS.

” POU interventions are ideal for improving water quality in developing countries because they are highly cost-effective, can be rapidly deployed and taken up by vulnerable populations, and are considered some of the most effective of water, sanitation and health interventions (WHO and UNICEF, 2006).

Thomassique, Haiti, is a poor, rural community of approximately 60,000 people, located in the east of Haiti’s Central Plateau. Thomassique’s major source of water is a spring located approximately 15 miles away in the town of Cerca-la-Source.

The water delivery infrastructure was constructed in the 1980s and has had little repair since this time. Approximately 20% of Thomassique residents have water piped to their households. All other residents get water from public fountains (tiyo).

Recent microbiological tests of the water from these fountains revealed high levels of bacterial contamination. This study is a pilot study to increase understanding of Thomassique residents’ current drinking water and sanitation practices and to learn what POU intervention is most effective in Thomassique. This study will increase knowledge in 5 areas: 1.

Residents’ current drinking-water and sanitations practices 2. Residents’ opinions regarding the quality and accessibility of water in their community 3. Rates of diarrheal diseases among children under 5 years old and adults over 50 years old 4. Residents’ willingness to invest in public and private POU interventions 5. Relative effectiveness of two different POU interventions among residents ofThomassique With this increased knowledge, a large-scale clean water project will be designed in order to extend positive outcomes to a greater portion of the Thomassique community.

The pilot study is essential in the success of the final clean water project to have positive health impacts because the pilot study will demonstrate which technology is most relevant and acceptable to residents in Thomassique and what community education is needed to promote effective use. This study might further assist in designing clean water projects in other communities on the Central Plateau with similar disease burdens and cultural preferences as Thomassique. Study Population: The participant population will be three groups of 20 households (60 households total) living in the northeastern zone of Thomassique.

The three groups will be randomly assigned from within the 60 households. The person in the household to which the survey and educational information will be directed is the head woman of the household. This population was chosen for the study for three reasons. First, the northeast zone ofThomassique is remote from downtown Thomassique and will therefore most likely not benefit from any improvements in water supply infrastructure or water quality provided by the town in the near future.

Second, the Medical Missionaries Fellows, who will be carrying out the pilot study, live at Saint Joseph Clinic, which is located in northeasternThomassique. Therefore, if any participants have questions, comments, or problems, the Fellows will be easily accessible to them. Finally, the head woman of each household was selected as the target for the survey and education because, since the women doing most of the childcare, food preparation, and cleaning, they will be most familiar with the precise water situation.

Furthermore, because the women are the primary care providers, the mothers in the household will be able to pass on the information they learn regarding proper water treatment and sanitation to their children. Recruiting Participants: Participants will be recruited through personal contact by the Medical Missionaries Fellows, who are acquaintances of many people living in thenortheastern zone of Thomassique due to their work at Saint Joseph Clinic, their other community outreach efforts, and the fact that they are easily identifiable as the only foreigners in Thomassique.

The Fellows will go to the homes of people living in the area and ask them if they would be willing to be included in the study. (See Appendix A for the interview protocol. Note: All materials will be translated into Creole. ) This method of recruitment is preferable because many of the residents of this zone are not literate and thus any written advertisements or flyers would not reach much of the target population. The Fellows will go to people’s homes in the late afternoon, between 3:30 pm and 6 pm.

At this time, the afternoon meal will have already been prepared and any family members who were working in the fields or doing other tasks will have returned. This is the time we will most likely be able to find the head woman of the household at home and relatively unoccupied. Study Activities: After a resident has agreed to participate in the research, she will be led through an oral informed consent process and asked to sign an informed consent form and a photo consent form. (See Appendices B and D.

) The next step of the pilot study is a pre-intervention oral questionnaire designed to gain information regarding residents’ current drinking-water and sanitations practices, residents’ opinions regarding the quality and accessibility of water in their community, rates of diarrheal diseases among children under 5 years old and adults over 50 years old in each household and residents’ willingness to invest in public and private POU interventions. (See Appendix E. ) This questionnaire is partially based on “Core questions on drinking water and sanitation for household surveys” (WHO and UNICEF, 2006).

The questionnaire will be the same for all three study groups. For each child under 5 years of age who is reported to have had diarrhea in the past two weeks, the researcher will asses the severity of each child’s dehydration based on the clinical classification of severity of dehydration taken from “Lecture Notes on Tropical Medicine,” edited by G. Gill and N. Beeching (2007).

This system classifies individuals into three groups: mild, moderate, and severe dehydration. Please see Appendix I for a description of the classification system.

Such classification is important to ensure that any children with severe dehydration receive medical attention. Children determined to have moderate dehydration will be given oral rehydration solution and their parents informed as to warning signs that the child is becoming dangerously dehydrated. Children with severe dehydration will be given oral rehydration solution and referred immediately to the clinic. Classification into these three groups will also lead to more consistent comparisons between severity of diarrhea pre- and post- intervention.

The next step of the study is a short education session, which will occur approximately 2 weeks after the initial administration of the questionnaire. (See Appendix F. ) The Fellows will give a presentation on basic causes of diarrheal disease, safe stool disposal, hand washing, approaches to improve household drinking-water quality and how a household can benefit from improved drinking-water quality and sanitation. The presentation will be oral and will contain some pictures to aid in comprehension. (See Appendix G. ) This presentation will last approximately 15 minutes. All three groups in the study will see the same initial

15-minute presentation. After the general presentation, each study group will receive a different additional 5-minute presentation focused on the intervention specific for that group. The three focus presentations will address: 1. General review of all other information covered in original session (control) 2. Use of chlorine to treat drinking-water 3. Use of solar disinfection to treat drinking water. (Participants in group 1 will not receive any additional study materials. ) Participants in group 2 will be provisioned with a “Klorfasil” system (a bucket with a tap and enough chlorine to treat 5 gallons of water each day for 18 months).

This system is currently being introduced in Hinche, a city approximately 20 miles away. These participants will be asked to attend a distribution session run by the Klorfasil representative fromHinche. She is Haitian and will give a detailed presentation about correct use of the system. Participants in group 3 will be given two 16. 9 ounce bottles made of clear PET plastic for each member of the family. These two specific interventions were selected based on their potential to cause immediate, low-cost impact on the quality of drinking water available in the outlying areas of Thomassique.

They would both be very feasible to extend to a large number of people very quickly. The population targeted in this study is large, spread over a wide geographical range, and very poor. Therefore, many of them are unlikely to experience major changes in infrastructure or access in the near future. These two interventions would allow many people very immediate access to clean drinking water at very low cost. The Klorfasiltreatment system has recently been introduced in some parts of Hinche and has been reported as being successful. The chlorination program in Hinche would be relatively easy to extend to Thomassique.

For solar treatment, the only necessary material is clear plastic bottles, which are widely available in Thomassique. Other options may be better longer term but before we invest in a large amount of money in household filters, community filters, bigger infrastructure projects, etc, we want to ensure we know how people feel about these, so we will ask people about their willingness to invest in such interventions. The next step of the study is a short post-intervention oral questionnaire. (See Appendix H. ) This questionnaire will be administered 3 separate times in each household: 2 weeks following the education session, 1

month after the education session, and 2 months after the education session. The post-intervention questionnaire contains only 7 questions and should not take more than 10 minutes of participants’ time to complete. The questionnaire will be administered three times in each household in order to demonstrate whether the interventions are effective in changing people’s behavior over time and not just immediately following the education session. We are interested in developing a safe drinking-water culture that lasts well beyond the duration of the study and thus we want to know how adherence to the intervention changes over time.

Benefits to the Participants: Participants will receive education and, in groups 2 and 3, materials that will enable them to improve the quality of drinking water and sanitation in their households. By improving drinking water and sanitation, the participating households will most likely decrease their burden of diarrheal disease and increase health among all members of the household. Indirect Benefits: We will gain better understanding of current sanitation practices, information on residents’ resources, knowledge, and options to influence home hygiene.

The knowledge gained from this study will be used to inform further safe drinking-water projects in Thomassique. For example, if one intervention shows more improved health outcomes than the others, future projects will extend this intervention to more residentsofThomassique. Also, the information gained regarding residents’ willingness to invest in public and private POU interventions will ensure that no future projects are undertaken without community dedication to maintenance and sustainability.

Finally, following this study, a presentation will be given to members of the Thomassique Water Committee, whoare responsible for upkeep and development of the current water delivery system. They are interested in including education among their future activities and this study will help them design their education program to be most effective in Thomassique. http://medmissionaries. org/id49. html Portable Water Station Manly Council is the first council in Australia to provide free filtered water to the public. Manly Council has installed filtered water bubblers throughout high pedestrian traffic areas such as Manly Corso and the beachfront.

These bubblers reduce the number of plastic water bottles bought, reduce littering, and reduce waste. Background Manufacture, transportation and refrigeration of bottled water has considerable environmental impacts. Many bottles end up in landfill or as litter rather than being reused or recycled. The aim of this initiative is to reduce the number of plastic bottles being purchased and disposed of in the Manly LGA. The bubblers provide Manly visitors with free filtered water as an alternative to purchasing bottled water. By refilling water bottles, it is expected the number of plastic bottles purchased is reduced.

This in turn reduces the amount of waste and litter generated in Manly. The story so far In 2008 six filtered water bubblers were installed as a pilot. The structures consisted of separate bubbler and filter, and cost $9,300 each to purchase and install. To reduce this cost, Manly Council set about redesigning the bubblers to create an all-in-one design that cost $5,300 each. By the end of 2010, twelve bubblers of the new design had been installed, making 18 bubblers in total. The bubblers play an important role in waste and sustainability education, with all the bubblers displaying the message “Combat Climate Change.

Avoid Waste & Pollution. Reuse Resources. Reduce Carbon Emisions. ” The bubblers are wheelchair accessible, vandal resistant and easy to keep clean. The high-tech water filters remove contaminants such as cryptosporidium, giardia, chlorine and lead, and provide water as good or better than bottled water. Outcomes By taking initiative and creatively addressing the problems associated with bottled water consumption, Manly Council clearly demonstrates how local government can directly achieve significant positive outcomes across the triple bottom line.

There are 18 water bubblers operational at locations throughout the LGA. The bubblers use an average of 5,500 litres of water per month each. This equates to 1,188 kilolitres per year, almost enough to fill 2 million 600mL bottles. Potentially up to 80 tonnes of plastic bottles avoided, saving 153m3 of landfill space and reducing costs to Council for waste and litter management. The bubblers provide an easy, healthy, free option for residents and visitors to reuse their water bottles rather than disposing of them after a single use.

Complementing this project is Council’s resolution to cease the purchase of single serve bottles of water within the organisation. The bubblers contribute to a positive, generous image of Manly. Manly Council is the first council in Australia to provide free filtered water to the public. LGSA Waste Avoidance Award, Joint Overall Winner 2009-10 and Winner Division B Runner Up, Local Government in Sustainability Awards 2010 Achievement Award, 2010 Local Government Sustainability Award, DECCW Green Globe Awards Contact willing to talk to other council staff considering similar initiative Name:

Disclaimer Any company, product or brand name referred to in this case study is for the purposes of context and illustration only. No endorsement of any company, product, brand or service should be implied. http://www. manly. nsw. gov. au/environment/climate-change-and-sustainability/portable-water-stations/ LOCAL STUDIES Sustainability of Water Resources for the Poor James Patrick Abulencia De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines 1. Introduction One out of eight people today, or 884 million people across the globe, do not have access to clean water.

For millions, local ponds, streams, irrigation canals, and unprotected dug wells are contaminated. i Among these people, approximately one third live on less than $1 per day while more than two-thirds are living on less than $2 a day. More often than not, people living in impoverished communities pay 5 to 10 times more for a liter of water than wealthy people living in the same city. ii In the Philippines, a study by the Asian Development Bank in 2007 indicated that only about a third of river systems can be used as clean water sources while 58% of the groundwater sources are already contaminated.

iiiPotable water resources are critical aspect of any healthy, functioning community, and are of special significance to small rural communities like many found in the Philippines. Contaminated water may affect surrounding vegetation and agricultural stocks, which communities depend on for sustenance and for profitable harvest. Food grown using unclean water sources not only threatens the community that eats it, but it cannot be sold at market, further reducing earnings and productivity of the community inhabitants.

Second, contaminated water can lead to waterborne bacterial and viral disease outbreaks, including diarrhea, malaria, and cholera, very serious, potentially-fatal illnesses. Finally, even if a community recognizes that their water source is unclean, the process of water purification is energy-intensive. Firewood and animal-waste is the most common fuel used to boil water, but these resources can become unsustainable and should not be relied upon as the sole method of water purification. To this end, addressing the problem of unsafe water must become a primary focus for affected communities.

2. Drinking Water in the Philippines The Philippines is one country with many communities in need of clean water. According to UNICEF, the number of Filipinos with no access to safe drinking water is approximately 17 million. iv Over 15% of the rural communities in the Philippines do not have access to potable water due to limited income. Most rural areas in the Philippines consider natural ground water as their source of drinking water. In particular, the domestic water requirement of Nagcarlan, in the province of Laguna, is supported by six water springs along the slope of Mt.

Banahaw. v Due to abundant rainfall, this municipality has no water supply issues. The accumulated rainwater percolates through Mt. Banahaw as natural water springs. However, because it is not covered by the National Water Resources Board (NWRB), Nagcarlan has a poorly managed water distribution system, increasing the risk of water contamination. First, there is uncontrolled application of pesticides by several farmers planting on the top of Mt. Banahaw. Second, there are established houses and piggeries with poorly constructed septic tanks and waste disposal systems in the upland area.

Lastly, the pipes that are used to distribute water to the municipality are at least 50 years old and sometimes run through polluted canals. Pesticides, heavy metals, and bacteria are the main contaminants of Nagcarlan’s water system. Therefore, there is a fervent need to purify water from the aforementioned sources in order to provide the community with clean drinking water. The primary method used for water purification in the Philippines is reverse osmosis. In Nagcarlan, there are already five major water-purifying stations and several distributors of imported bottled drinking water.

However, most of the residents of Nagcarlan cannot afford to buy purified drinking water, and thus resort to a crude method of treatment whereby chlorine is dripped into water with no stirrer to distribute the chlorine. Presently, most people boil their water as a means of water purification. Other residents buy cheap faucet filters from the local market in Nagcarlan. Sometimes they even drink tap water directly from the faucet, causing public health problems like diarrhea and other gastro-intestinal diseases. In fact, the Rural Health Unit in Nagcarlan has reported 11,523 cases of intestinal diseases in 2007.

vi Therefore, due to the present contamination of water sources and the large expense to purify them, there is a strong need to develop a low-cost water purification system fit for a community in Nagcarlan using low cost materials. 3. Potential Solutions There are several solutions to address this need for affordable water purification systems. One potential solution is the use of Rapid Sand Filtration (RSF).

This technology uses sand to separate flocculated contaminants, preventing them from passing through into the then purified water.

vii Although this seems to be an excellent candidate for use in rural communities due to its low cost, it has several disadvantages. First of all, Rapid RSF removes less pathogens compared to other filter methods. viii Second, these filters require a large amount of maintenance, namely the energy, labor, and effort required to backwash contaminants off of the filtration medium. ix Thus, RSF on its own would not be a good application for poor communities. 158 Consilience A second approach is chlorination.

The major problem with using this technology is that a large effort must be made to educate the community on its use. By-products of water chlorination may be harmful to humans, thus requiring great care to properly employ. Moreover, price is an issue, thus making sustained use impossible for communities with limited resources. xA third potential solution is the use of solar disinfection. Once again, this may appear to be an excellent candidate because sunlight is free; however, the cost and availability of materials to build these devices may be impractical for these poor communities.

xi Also, the availability of continuous sunlight may be lacking during rainy seasons, a characteristic common for many of these communities in less developed nations. Finally, the logistics of employing solar disinfection make it difficult to implement. More specifically, it would require a central system with a single solar sill, and a distribution system to deliver water to members of the community. Thus, the resources and energy to create this necessary infrastructure are often prohibitive for these poor rural communities. 4. Specific Solutions 4. 1 Characterization of Activated Carbon

The use of activated carbon for water purification is an affordable and manageable solution to clean drinking water. Coconuts, in particular, are a great source for the activated carbon because they are abundant in the Philippines. The activated carbon generated possesses favorable characteristics. They can attain higher surface areas compared to commercially available activated carbon, making them a more effective material as an adsorbent xii and have been shown to be more cost effective and equally successful at removing water pollutants than other methods.

xiiiAs a specific solution, it was important to study the characteristics of activated carbon derived from coconut shell. This was accomplished by collecting approximately 642 kg of raw coconuts shells from the farmers of Nagcarlan region. These coconuts were not harvested from the trees themselves, and therefore the collected fallen fruit are considered waste material because they would have typically found little use. The processing of these fallen fruit involved the raw coconut shells being crushed to approximately one-inch pieces and screened to eliminate fine particles.

A portion of the crushed coconut was then fed to the activation reactor, which was designed by the Industrial Technology & Development Institute (ITDI) of the Department of Science & Technology (DOST) of the Philippines. The shells were then ignited with kerosene prior to start up. Once the temperature reached 400°C, additional coconut was added until the reactor was filled to capacity. The activation process was carried out by supplying steam at a rate of 1. 0-1. 5. kg/hr to a temperature of 1000°C for a duration of twelve hours. After processing and activation, 94.

75 kg of activated carbon was produced; this resulted in an overall yield of 14. 76%. Consilience Abulencia et al. : Water Resources for the Poor The physical characteristics of the activated carbon in this process were determined with FTIR and Iodine number analysis by identifying surface functional groups and total surface area, respectively. The FTIR analysis of the activated carbon from coconut shells, shown in Figure 1, revealed the presence of a very broad peak at 3400 cm-1. This suggested the presence of carbonyl compounds, which usually occur with very broad peaks at ranges 2500-3500 cm-1 .

These peaks suggested carboxylic acids and it derivatives. Appearance of a peak at 1130 cm-1, a short broad peak at 1640 cm-1, and a very small sharp peak at 1400 cm-1 referred to ketones, alkenes, and a group of alkanes or alkenes, respectively. Results from the Iodine number analysis provided a value of 1104 mg Iodine/g carbon. This number can be compared to the 600 to 1100 mg Iodine/g carbon measured for commercially available activated carbon. In addition, BET pore surface area was also measured to be 235 m2/g. 4. 2 Removal of Heavy Metals with Activated Carbon

The characterization of activated carbon revealed favorable results on surface functional groups and total surface area. This instigated the need to investigate its ability to adsorb heavy metals, such as arsenic, from drinking water. Heavy metals must be addressed because they are considered a major source of water contamination in poor communities. 160 Consilience The rise of global industrialization has resulted in the generation of heavy metal wastewater, specifically zinc, cadmium, arsenic, lead, copper, and nickel.

Plants and factories in countries that do not possess strict environmental regulations unscrupulously pollute nearby rivers and waterways, and the contaminants often find their way to the water sources of poor rural communities. Traditional chemical precipitation processes used to remove these heavy metals would not be feasible to be performed by communities with little resources or laboratory expertise. Thus, activated carbon from natural materials offers an alternative solution to this problem.

In one example, performed by Ahmedna et al (2004), lead, copper, and zinc were removed from wastewater using steam and phosphoric acid activated nutshell carbons (derived from walnuts, pecans, and almonds).

Their findings show that activated carbon generated from these nutshells performed better than activated carbon filters (made from coal) in removing the aforementioned heavy metals. xivIn a separate study performed by Manju et al (1998), copper-impregnated coconut husk carbons were used to remove arsenic from wastewater.

It was discovered that activated carbon was able to successfully remove arsenic in a dose dependent manner. Moreover, they were able to show that the adsorbent may be reused after treatment with hydrogen peroxide in a nitric acid solution. xvAnother study performed by Kadirvelu et al (2002) involved activated carbon produced from waste parthenium to aid in the removal of nickel (II) from aqueous solution. The results showed that Ni (II) was successfully removed using the activated carbon from the parthenium weeds, especially at increased pH levels.

In addition, the activated carbon could be regenerated upon its treatment with hydrochloric acid. xviThese three studies demonstrate that activated carbon from various natural sources has the potential to remove heavy metals from water. It is important to note that the technology to generate this activated carbon is viable for poor communities because it is does not require sophisticated equipment, and these communities are often rich in the raw materials required to make them.

However, future research in this area is still needed to examine activated carbon generation from the perspective of these poor communities. 5. Using Service Learning for Solutions To this end of generating cost-effective water-purifying solutions for poor, rural communities, a service learning project was created, comprised of a collaboration between chemical engineering students at Manhattan College in the United States and De La Salle University in the Philippines. This project utilized the aforementioned solutions to address this specific need for a water purification system in Nagcarlan.

In particular, the solution formulated by the student team centers around a personal water filter comprised of activated carbon derived from coconut shell, housed in a bamboo shell. The most important characteristics of both these materials are that they are abundant in the Philippines, biodegradable and theproduct of recycling waste products, reusing a material that would otherwise be thrown away, therefore imparting minimal effects to the environment. Service learning is a teaching method employing the knowledge students have acquired in the classroom to meet the needs of a less-developed community.

From a pedagogical perspective, it addresses many components in a student’s education, resulting in opportunities for personal growth. Most undergraduate engineering programs focus on teaching the rudiments of their particular discipline, ultimately incorporating this collection of knowledge into a capstone course. A majority of these programs fail to underscore an engineer’s duty to serve society. Engineering education should not only train a student in the technical aspects of the practice, but also encourage him or her to use these skills to serve society.

Service learning also helps build problem solving and critical thinking capabilities, it can help to enhancing a student’s ability to work in multidisciplinary teams, and service learning can provide practice in managing a project from conception to final goal. Furthermore, it helps to better understand cultural differences, develop communication and interpersonal skills, and encourage lifelong learning. xvii In this context, however, service learning has the advantage of maintaining a sustained supply of engineers eager to solve real-world problems.

More specifically, engineering educators can always apply the technological aptitude, innovation, and creativity of their students to problems of social significance, ultimately helping a disadvantaged sector of society. 6. Sustainability and Replication 6. 1 Community Outreach Program The Chemical Engineering Department of De La Salle University started its outreach program in Nagcarlan in May 2008 with an initial assessment of the water resources of Nagcarlan. The assessment consisted of an actual visit to the water sources/springs, as well as a group discussion with the Mayor and his staff.

The discussion was facilitated by Department of Science and Technology Assistant Secretary Maria Lourdes Orijola. It was agreed that in order to have a sustainable supply of clean water, a comprehensive and integrated environmental management system (EMS) for the town should be set up. The planned EMS for Nagcarlan consists of not only assessing the water resources, but includes air quality management and solid wastes management as well. The first phase of the project, environmental education, was conducted in November 2009. More than one hundred participants attended this whole day activity.

Officials from the 52 barangays of the town came to learn from the lectures. Youth representatives and women also joined in, taught by volunteer faculty members about the following topics: the 3Rs of solid waste management (reduce, reuse and recycle), the use of biofuels, and the leachate problem of landfills. As a result of the first phase, a waste audit of the town was conducted. 162 Consilience During the second stage, the use of waste coconut shell was identified as potentially recyclable. It was agreed to be used for activated carbon manufacture.

The ITDI (Industrial Technology Development Institute) proven process for activated carbon manufacture was used in the project. The third phase was a consultative meeting with the townspeople to discuss two projects. One project is addressing climate change and the other project is on the development of personal water purifier. In the fall of 2009, the group from Manhattan College, with a group from De la Salle University (shown below in Figure 2), visited and presented their project in the Philippines. 6. 2 Removal of Heavy Metals with Activated Carbon

The proposed service learning project for the development of a personal water purifier is currently focused on the barangays (Filipino division for town) in Nagcarlan. However, if a program’s outcome proves successful, then a replication to other towns and nations would be the next step towards solving the global problem of unavailability of potable drinking water. As mentioned earlier, several million Filipinos do not have access to safe drinking water, making it essential to implement similar programs in other poor communities throughout the Philippines.

Similarly, the proposed solution can be extended to other nations stricken with water quality issues, such as India, by utilizing indigenous, natural resources, exemplified by the use of Philippine’s natural resources of coconut shells and bamboo. Consilience Abulencia et al. : Water Resources, exemplified by the use of Philippine’s natural resources of coconut shells and bamboo. Consilience Abulencia et al. : Water Resources for the Poor In conclusion, finding effective solutions for clean drinking water may be a challenging undertaking.

However, the proposed service learning project and the community outreach program to sustain water resources for the poor communities in the Philippines shows initiative at tackling this drinking water crisis. http://www. consiliencejournal. org/index. php/consilience/article/viewFile/69/44 Local Service Delivery of Potable Water in the Philippines: National Review and Case Analysis Danilo C. Israel Abstract This study reviewed the local service delivery of potable water nationally and analyzed the same in the case study areas of Dumaguete City and Agusan del Sur.

Data and information for the national review were generated from the relevant literature while those for the case analysis were had through a survey done in late 2008 and early 2009. The national review found that although pertinent laws, institutions, strategies and programs on potable water service delivery were already in place, institutional problems remained. It further asserted that while the country may be heading towards meeting its national and MDG objectives related to the provision of potable water, more needs to be done with the limited time at hand.

Among the important conclusions of the case study was that Dumaguete City has met meet or is about to meet national and MDG objectives related to potable water delivery while Agusandel Sur and at least some of its municipalities still have to work harder to meet them. The study further found that the price, quality and accessibility of potable water were major factors influencing households in their choice of water source. Furthermore, it asserted that there were key issues and challenges facing local water service delivery most of which were institutional in nature.

Based on the results, findings and conclusions of the national review and case analysis, the study suggested some recommendations intended for the further development of local service delivery of potable water nationally, in the case study sites and in other local areas. Introduction Potable or drinking water is a critical requirement of human life. Without it, our continued existence on earth would be immediately threatened. It is for this reason that the provision of potable water in adequate quantity and quality is a primary national and international concern of nations.

In particular, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) target that 86. 6 percent of the population of countries would have adequate access to safe drinking water by 2015 (NEDA 2007).

For its part, the Philippine government aims that 92 to 96 percent of its citizens would have sufficient water supply at an even earlier date, by 2010 (NEDA 2004).

With 2015 in the not too distant future and 2010 only a year away, the performance of the Philippines in meeting national and international objectives related to potable water needs to be asssessed.

Evaluating at this time where we are in terms of our potable water targets will help determine whether our objectives are achievable or actually farfetched. Furthermore, an assessment will allow us to see whether we should finetune our methods and fastrack our efforts with the remaining time at hand. In late 2008 and early 2009, the Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) conducted a study on local service delivery (LSD) in the sectors of education, health and potable water in the Philippines.

In the case of potable water, the study reviewed potable water service delivery nationally and analysed it in two case study sites: Dumaguete City in Negros Oriental and the Province of Agusan del Sur in Mindanao. In particular, the study looked into the current situation of water service delivery in the Philippines and the two sites, determined its performance relative to national targets and the MDGs, and identified the key issues and challenges it faces. The end purpose of the water service delivery study was to generate recommendations for its improvement.

This discussion paper presents the important results and findings of the study on local service delivery of potable water delivery in the Philippines. It is hoped that the paper will provide policy makers and other interested readers data and information on local potable water service delivery useful to their own works and activities. Corollarily, this paper recommends some actions that can be undertaken for the improvement of potable water service delivery in the case study sites as well as other similarly situated areas of the country. Another report of the study in contained in PIDS-UNICEF (2009).

The second section of the discussion paper discusses the methods used by the study while the next section provides a description of the two case study sites. The fourth section conducts a review of the literature while the following two sections present an institutional review and backgroundof local potable water service delivery at the national level. Theseventh section provides the results and findings of the case analysis. The penultimate section lists the key issues and challenges while the last section provides the various conclusions and recommendations. Methods

The review at the national level used data and information from published literaturerelated to potable water service delivery in the Philippines and from selected national key informants. The case analysis utilized data and information generated through a survey conducted in Dumaguete City and Agusandel Sur. The survey had three parts: a) household module, b) service provider module, and c) key informant module. The household module was done through personal interviews with the heads of selected households or their representatives. There were a total of 183 households in Dumaguete City and 158 households in Agusandel Sur covered.

A questionnaire was prepared, pre-tested and administered in October and November 2008. The households included those which were participants and non-participants of the Sub-Regional-Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (SR-MICS) of the national government and were selected at random. The questionnaire generated economic and other related data and information deemed useful to the study. The household module of the survey also conducted focus group discussions inDumaguete City and Agusandel Sur, particularly among households which were non-users of certain local potable water services in their areas. These

households were also selected at random. In Dumaguete City, 11 household heads or their representatives participated in the focus group discussions while in Agusandel Sur 20 households joined. The activity was conducted in March 2009. The service provider module of the survey consisted of personal interviews with the representatives of local water service providers in the case study sites, including those representing water districts, local government units and other water service providers. The key informant module consisted of personal interviews with selected public and private sector representatives in the study sites.

These informants included a governor, mayors and barangay captains as well as members of the provincial, municipal and barangay finance committees in the study sites. The data and information generated centered on public planning, budgeting and overall management of local water service delivery in the study sites. Description of the Case Study Sites 3. 1 Dumaguete City Dumaguete City is located in the province of Negros Oriental which is in the Central Visayas Region or Region VII of the country (Figure 1).

Negros Oriental was founded in 1917 and occupies the southeastern half of Negros Island with Negros Occidental in the northwestern half. The province is composed of 6 component cities, 19 municipalities, 557 barangays and 3 congressional districts. It has a total land area of 540,230 hectares. With a population of 1,126,061 people in 2007, Negros Oriental had a population density of 2. 08 persons per hectare. The main dialect of Negros Oriental is Cebuano which is spoken by 95 percent of thepopulation. Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion.

The major industry of Negros Oriental is agriculture with sugarcane, corn, coconut and rice as the primary crops. In the coastal areas, fishing is also a main source of income and livelihood. The population is alsoinvolved in cattle ranching, fishfarming and logging. Furthermore, the province has mineral deposits like gold silver and copper. Dumaguete City is the capital city of Negros Oriental. It is a coastal city and located in the southwestern part of the province facingSiquijor and Cebu. It became a city in 1948 and is currently composed of 30 barangays.

Dumaguete City has a total land area of 3,426 hectares. It had a population of 116,392 persons and 21,582 households in 2007. With its population and land area, it had a population density of 33. 97 persons per hectare. Dumaguete City is perhaps best known for hosting Silliman University, the first protestant university and the first American university in Asia. In addition, the city has other universities and colleges, 9 high schools and 12 elementary schools. It also has three major hospitals and medical centers.

The economy of Dumaguete City is mainly business and tourism-based. The city has several shopping centers, food establishments and banks which cater to the population. The barangays in Dumaguete City which were covered by the case study wereTaclobo, Daro, Batinguel, Bunao, Calindagan, Barangay 1 and Barangay 8. Of the barangays, Batinguel has the largest area while Barangay 8 has the lowest (Table 1).

Taclobo had the largest population in 2007 while Barangay 8 had the lowest. Barangay 8 had the highest population density in 2007 while Batinguel had the lowest.

3. 2 Province of Agusan del Sur The province of Agusan del Sur is in the CARAGA Region (Region XIII) which is located in the northeastern part of Mindanao (Figure 1).

The province was founded in 1967 and is classified as a first class province. It is composed of 14 municipalities, 314 barangays and 2 congressional districts. It has a total land area of 896,600 hectares which is the fourth largest in the country. With a population of 559,294 persons in 2007, it had a population density of 0. 62 persons per hectare.

The CBMS Survey (PPDO, Agusan del Sur 2005) reported that the province had 109,123 households and total household members of 549,946 in 2005 (Table 2).

Of the municipalities, Bayugan had the largest number of households and household members. La Paz had the lowest number of households while Sta. Josefa had the lowest number of household members. The main dialect spoken in Agusandel Sur is Cebuano brought in by the dominant migrant population from the Visayas. There are other ethnic languages used particularly by the tribal groups in the province including the Aeta, Mamanwa, Bagobo, Higaonon and Manobo.

The dominant religion is Roman Catholicism which is practiced by 79 percent of the population. Agusandel Sur is mainly an agricultural and forestry province with forestry products,rice, corn, coconuts and fruits among its major crops. The province has a palm oil plantation covering an area of 118 square kilometers which is a Malaysian-Filipino joint venture. Being landlocked, the province is highly dependent on nearby coastal provinces for the supply of fish and other marine products. However, it has an abundant supply of freshwater fish like mudfish, catfish and tilapia.

Among the numerous natural attractions of the province is the Agusan Marsh. The municipalities of Agusandel Sur which were covered by the case study were Bayugan, Prosperidad and Sibagat . These municipalities are contiguous and located along the national highway. Key Issues and Challenges Facing Local Potable Water Service Delivery Based on the existing literature, interviews with key informants and informed opinion of the author, the following are the important issues and challenges facing local water service delivery in the case study sites: Key issues facing potable water service delivery as a whole

a) Denuded watersheds and water pollution that endanger both surface and underground water sources; b) Disparities in potable water service delivery between the different municipalities and barangays; c) Existence of waterless barangays and rural areas that have no or limited local water service delivery; d) Low levels of financial and other related investments in local water service delivery systems; e) Generally low levels of technical qualifications of the manpower involved in local water service delivery; f) Lack of integrated planning and ineffective implementation by local water service delivery institutions; g) Lack of government regulations particularly on small-scale groundwater extraction by the private sector; and h) Limited participation of public and private sector institutions in local water service delivery. Key issues facing the water districts

a) From the perspective of the poor households, high rates of water connection and water tariffs which discourage them from getting a connection; b) From the perspective of some water districts, low rates of water connection and water tariffs that do not allow them to recover costs and earn profits; c) Perceived poor quality of water from some water districts due to water turbidity due to natural and man-made factors; d) Low water pressure, high downtime, high percentage of non-revenue water, and related operational problems of some water districts; e) High exchange rate of the peso to the dollar, which prevents the water districts from purchasing imported equipment; f) Difficulty in paying outstanding loans by some water districts due to low or negative financial profitability; g) Limited coverage and expansion of water districts due to limited markets and lack of financial resources; and h) Poor coordination with LGUs, resulting in the latter becoming competitors instead of partners in local water service delivery. Key Issues facing the LGUs

a) Limited financial resources resulting in poor local water service delivery in many local areas; b) Graft and corruption, which significantly limits public resources allocated for local water service delivery; c) Low compensations and incentives in government resulting in low motivation of personnel to perform effectively; d) Lack of emphasis on sanitation as an important public function related to local water service delivery; e) Weak and fragmented organizational structures resulting in inefficient local water service delivery; f) Gender and age-insensitive planning and implementation of local potable water service delivery projects; g) Limited overall support for the BWASAs and other similar rural potable water providers; and h) Limited tie-ups and partnerships with the private sector, NGOs, and other stakeholders in local water service delivery. Key challenges and issues facing potable water service delivery in general a) Promotion of the institutional capacity of local water service delivery

providers through consistent capacity-building programs; b) Enhancement of the management and regulatory functions of local public institutions through appropriate legislation; c) Improvement of the financial performance of local water service delivery providers through development of cost-effective technologies and other approaches; d) Promotion of the integration and streamlining of activities among the institutions through strong cooperation and coordination; e) Exploration of other sources of financing and investment through involvement of the private sector, donors, and other fund sources; and f) Promotion of equity and fairness by considering gender and waterless communities in local water service delivery. Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions

In retrospect, the national review of the local service delivery of potable water in the Philippines conducted beforehand by the current study generated the following important conclusions: a) The potable water sources and supply of the country are limited and a significant share of it is contaminated; b) Household income and price of water have significant impacts on water demand and the latter, although formally progressive may actually have regressive effects; c) In addition to price and households income, the provision of potable water has health, gender and social implications; d) Institutional factors are important as well and although pertinent laws, institutions, strategies and programs are in place, institutional problems remain; e) The primary institutional problems in local water service delivery are the multiplicity of institutions, uncertainty in law implementation and weak regulatory framework; f) Outside of the traditional sources of potable water, new sources have emerged particularly refilled water and bottled water providers; and g) While the country is heading towards meeting its national and MDG objectives related to potable water provision, much remains to be done and quickly. Also in review, among the most important conclusions generated from the analysis of the local service delivery of potable water in the case study sites of Dumaguete City and Agusandel Sur are the following: a) Local service delivery of potable water, particularly Level I, II and III water,

in the case study sites in done by both the public and private sectors; b) The public sector providers include the water districts and the LGUs while the private providers were the household self-providers, firms and other private entities; c) Refilled water and bottled water providers also exist but their exact numbers and coverage, although likely increasing, are not known at present; d) Dumaguete City has met or likely to meet national and MDG objectives in potable water sufficiency while Agusandel Sur and at least some of its municipalities may not meet targets; e) Water tariffs in the municipalities of Agusandel Sur are significantly higher than those in Dumaguete City even though the population of the former is relatively poorer; f) Water price, quality and accessibility are important factors influencing households to use or not to use particular sources of potable water; g) Households can easily access water in their neighborhood at little or no financial or time costs on their part; h) Plastic containers are widely used in storing potable water, a practice may have adverse long terms environmental effects; i) There are gender and age implications in the access of water as a significant number of women and children are involved in fetching water; j) Households use relatively low levels of potable water for actual drinking while the rest of the water is utilized for for other household chores; k) Water bill of households are relatively low and does not seem to be significantly influenced by the seasons; l) Households do not treat their drinking water and those who do may not be willing to spend much on the effort; m) Household perception of the quality of and accessibility to their potable water do not seem to be significantly affected by seasons; n) Households in general are willing to pay a low a maximum amount of improvement of their potable water; and o) There are key issues and challenges facing local service delivery of potable water the most important of which are institutional in nature. Recommendations The proposed reforms and recommendations mentioned below for the improvement of local water service delivery at both at the national and case levels are based on the existing literature, interviews with key informants and informed opinion of the author: National reforms and recommendations a) As a general recommendation, the Philippine Water Supply Sector Roadmap (NEDA 2009) should be reviewed and finalized as soon as possible and then immediately implemented.

b) The pricing schemes for potable water by all sources should be reviewed in order to reduce if not eliminate the hidden regressive effects of water tariff particularly between household and municipality classes. c) The responsibilities and functions of public and private institutions involved in local water service delivery should be streamlined to prevent duplication, overlapping and redundance; d) The implementation of pertinent laws related to potable water, particularly EO 279 shouldbe given focused attention by relevant institutions in order to reduce or eliminate uncertainty; and e) The national government must not only pay lip service and offer paper products on national and MDG objectives but actively exercise real actions in order to achieve them. Case Study reforms and recommendations for the whole sector

a) Monitoring and enforcement must be strengthened by local governments in the areas of illegal logging, water pollution and other related management concerns through deputizationof the local population; b) Distribution of local resources for water services delivery must be based on equity and fairness to reduce the disparity between areas. This principle must be institutionalized through local legislation if necessary; c) Workable approaches in providing water services delivery to waterless barangays must be developed. The potential of SSIPs and BWASAs must be considered; d) The private sector must be considered as fund sources together with local governments and other local actors. Other financing sources must be explored including development lending institutions, donor agencies and NGOs; e) High standards must be established in the selection of personnel in water service delivery.

These standards must be based on merits and qualifications and not on political connections to improve institutional capacity; f) Local institutions involved in water service delivery should conduct relevant trainings and seminars to improve the managerial, technical and other areas of competence of their staff; g) Local institutions must invest in database and overall knowledge management. Full computerization of their activities and networking with other institutions are needed to build up the knowledge base; and h) Local legislation is needed to regulate certain aspects in local water service delivery, particularly the small-scale extraction of groundwater.

Case study reforms and recommendations for the water districts a) Since socialized pricing appears to be practiced by the LWUA and water districts, they should consider lowering the tariff rates of low income households vis a vis other users. Another alternative is to set up more public taps; b) The LWUA and water districts should consider increasing the rates of higher income households and the commercial and industrial users who have higher abilities to pay. This will help improve cost recovery; c) Proper management of water sources and regular repair and maintenance of facilities should improve the quality of water produced by water districts.

They should invest more in the repair and maintenance of distribution lines and other related facilities; d) The management and technical aspects of operations of water districts must be improved to increase water pressure, reduce downtime, lower non-revenue water and solve related problems; e) The water districts should develop cost-effective and indigenous technologies and innovations to reduce dependence on imported technology and lower the negative impacts of a high exchange rate; f) The water districts which have difficulty in paying their loans may request for loan restructuring from creditors or counterpart funding from LGUs. In the future they should seek sources of financing outside of government; g) The water districts can already increase coverage and expand by improving overall customer service. Community service activities to promote goodwill in the service areas will also help; and h) The water district should improve coordination with LGUs in local water servicedelivery. Regular consultations and meetings with relevant LGU units and personnel will help reduce the incidence of water service redundance. Case study reforms and recommendations for the LGUs

a) LGUs should provide more of its own funding to and prioritize public water service delivery. Since potable water is a basic public good, it should be a public function to provide it particularly in areas where it is lacking or absent; b) LGUs must develop a local moral recovery program and an effective local check and balance system that will penalize offending and corrupt public officials and employees; c) LGUs must develop forms of incentives so that its personnel will perform effectively in their respective functions. A fair and merit-based promotion system can also motivate lowlypaidemployees to work better; d) Since sanitation is directly related to water provision, it should be given emphasis by LGUs.

It should be an integral concern under the program of local water services delivery; e) The establishment and strengthening of provincial, municipal, and barangay Watsan units to integrate the function of water and sanitation under one roof will address the fragmentation in functions in local water service delivery; f) Gender and age issues must be considered in the planning and implementation of local water service delivery projects. Local public water systems must be user-friendly to women and children as well as men; g) BWASAs and other water providers in rural areas must be strongly supported. LGUs can help organizationally by settling disputes among members and even providing moral support; and h) Tie-ups and partnerships with other sectors must be established. Joint local water service delivery projects should be explored where individual costs to partners are lessened but overall benefits to users are increased.

The following are suggested areas for further research on local water service delivery in the country and particular sites within: Areas for future research a) Analysis of the demand and supply for potable water services. The analysis of the demand and supply for potable water services in local communities may be undertaken by PIDS or a similar research agency together with the local planning and development; b) Evaluation of the economic and social impact of water districts and other water service providers. This evaluation may be conducted with the water districts, other service providersand the LGUs; c) Analysis of the environmental impacts of water districts and other water service providers.

This analysis can be undertaken together with (b) and done with the service providers and local environmental GLUs; d) Evaluation of the impacts of global warming and climate change on water services. This evaluation can be conducted nationally or locally with the national and local environmental institutions; e) Analysis of the relationships between water and sanitation services. This analysis may be done with the DOH, DepEd, and the health, education and economic planning LGUs; f) Evaluation of the impacts of waste disposal and drainage systems on the provision of water services. This evaluation can be conducted with the DPWH, DOH, and local public works,health, and economic planning LGUs; g) Analysis of market-based mechanisms to enhance water services.

This analysis can be done with the financial institutions, service providers and the national and local finance and economic planning agencies; and h) Evaluation of sustainable financing mechanisms to enhance water services. This study may be done with the financial institutions, service providers and the national and local finance and economic planning agencies at the national and local levels. http://www. researchgate. net/publication/46442223_Local_Service_Delivery_of_Potable_Water_in_the_Philippines_National_Review_and_Case_Analysis Local Service Delivery of Potable Water in the Philippines: National Review and Case Analysis Danilo C. Israel Abstract

This study reviewed the local service delivery of potable water nationally and analyzed the same in the case study areas of Dumaguete City and Agusan del Sur. Data and information for the national review were generated from the relevant literature while those for the case analysis were had through a survey done in late 2008 and early 2009. The national review found that although pertinent laws, institutions, strategies and programs on potable water service delivery were already in place, institutional problems remained. It further asserted that while the country may be heading towards meeting its national and MDG objectives related to the provision of potable water, more needs to be done with the limited time at hand. Among the important conclusions of the case study was that Dumaguete City has

met meet or is about to meet national and MDG objectives related to potable water delivery while Agusan del Sur and at least some of its municipalities still have to work harder to meet them. The study further found that the price, quality and accessibility of potable water were major factors influencing households in their choice of water source. Furthermore, it asserted that there were key issues and challenges facing local water service delivery most of which were institutional in nature. Based on the results, findings and conclusions of the national review and case analysis, the study suggested some recommendations intended for the further development of local service delivery of potable water nationally, in the case study sites and in other local areas.

Introduction Potable or drinking water is a critical requirement of human life. Without it, our continued existence on earth would be immediately threatened. It is for this reason that the provision of potable water in adequate quantity and quality is a primary national and international concern of nations. In particular, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) target that 86. 6 percent of the population of countries would have adequate access to safe drinking water by 2015 (NEDA 2007).

For its part, the Philippine government aims that 92 to 96 percent of its citizens would have sufficient water supply at an even earlier date, by 2010 (NEDA 2004).

With 2015 in the not too distant future and 2010 only a year away, the performance of the Philippines in meeting national and international objectives related to potable water needs to be asssessed. Evaluating at this time where we are in terms of our potable water targets will help determine whether our objectives are achievable or actually farfetched. Furthermore, an assessment will allow us to see whether we should finetune our methods and fastrack our efforts with the remaining time at hand. With 2015 in the not too distant future and 2010 only a year away, the performance of the Philippines in meeting national and international objectives related to potable water needs to be asssessed. Evaluating at

this time where we are in terms of our potable water targets will help determine whether our objectives are achievable or actually farfetched. Furthermore, an assessment will allow us to see whether we should finetune our methods and fastrack our efforts with the remaining time at hand. In late 2008 and early 2009, the Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) conducted a study on local service delivery (LSD) in the sectors of education, health and potable water in the Philippines. In the case of potable water, the study reviewed potable water service delivery nationally and analysed it in two case study sites: Dumaguete City in Negros Oriental and the Province of Agusan del Sur in Mindanao.

In particular, the study looked into the current situation of water service delivery in the Philippines and the two sites, determined its performance relative to national targets and the MDGs, and identified the key issues and challenges it faces. The end purpose of the water service delivery study was to generate recommendations for its improvement This discussion paper presents the important results and findings of the study on local service delivery of potable water delivery in the Philippines. It is hoped that the paper will provide policy makers and other interested readers data and information on local potable water service delivery useful to their own works and activities.

Corollarily, this paper recommends some actions that can be undertaken for the improvement of potable water service delivery in the case study sites as well as other similarly situated areas of the country. Another report of the study in contained in PIDS-UNICEF (2009).

The second section of the discussion paper discusses the methods used by the study while the next section provides a description of the two case study sites. The fourth section conducts a review of the literature while the following two sections present an institutional review and background of local potable water service delivery at the national level. The seventh section provides the results and findings of the case analysis. The penultimate section lists the key issues and challenges while the last section provides the various conclusions and recommendations. Methods

The review at the national level used data and information from published literature related to potable water service delivery in the Philippines and from selected national key informants. The case analysis utilized data and information generated through a survey conducted in Dumaguete City and Agusan del Sur. The survey had three parts: a) household module, b) service provider module, and c) key informant module. The household module was done through personal interviews with the heads of selected households or their representatives. There were a total of 183 households in Dumaguete City and 158 households in Agusan del Sur covered. A questionnaire was prepared, pre-tested and administered in October and November 2008.

The households included those which were participants and non-participants of the Sub-Regional-Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (SR-MICS) of the national government and were selected at random. The questionnaire generated economic and other related data and information deemed useful to the study. The household module of the survey also conducted focus group discussions in Dumaguete City and Agusan del Sur, particularly among households which were non-users of certain local potable water services in their areas. These households were also selected at random. In Dumaguete City, 11 household heads or their representatives participated in the focus group discussions while in Agusan del Sur 20 households joined. The activity was conducted in March 2009.

The service provider module of the survey consisted of personal interviews with the representatives of local water service providers in the case study sites, including those representing water districts, local government units and other water service providers. The key informant module consisted of personal interviews with selected public and private sector representatives in the study sites. These informants included a governor, mayors and barangay captains as well as members of the provincial, municipal and barangay finance committees in the study sites. The data and information generated centered on public planning, budgeting and overall management of local water service delivery in the study sites. Description of the Case Study Sites 3. 1 Dumaguete City

Dumaguete City is located in the province of Negros Oriental which is in the Central Visayas Region or Region VII of the country (Figure 1).

Negros Oriental was founded in 1917 and occupies the southeastern half of Negros Island with Negros Occidental in the northwestern half. The province is composed of 6 component cities, 19 municipalities, 557 barangays and 3 congressional districts. It has a total land area of 540,230 hectares. With a population of 1,126,061 people in 2007, Negros Oriental had a population density of 2. 08 persons per hectare. The main dialect of Negros Oriental is Cebuano which is spoken by 95 percent of the population. Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion.

The major industry of Negros Oriental is agriculture with sugarcane, corn, coconut and rice as the primary crops. In the coastal areas, fishing is also a main source of income and livelihood. The population is also involved in cattle ranching, fishfarming and logging. Furthermore, the province has mineral deposits like gold silver and copper. Dumaguete City is the capital city of Negros Oriental (Figure 2).

It is a coastal city and located in the southwestern part of the province facing Siquijor and Cebu. It became a city in 1948 and is currently composed of 30 barangays. Dumaguete City has a total land area of 3,426 hectares. It had a population of 116,392 persons and 21,582 households in 2007.

With its population and land area, it had a population density of 33. 97 persons per hectare. Dumaguete City is perhaps best known for hosting Silliman University, the first protestant university and the first American university in Asia. In addition, the city has other universities and colleges, 9 high schools and 12 elementary schools. It also has three major hospitals and medical centers. The economy of Dumaguete City is mainly business and tourism-based. The city has several shopping centers, food establishments and banks which cater to the population. Review of Related Literature Some economic studies have already been done that reviewed or analysed the potable water situation in the Philippines.

In a study of water demand and supply in Metro Manila, Ebarvia (1994) stated that most of the surface water resources in Metro Manila were already contaminated and that for these to be fit for drinking, tertiary water treatment was required. The World Bank Group (2003) further indicated that up to 58 percent of the groundwater supply in the country intended were drinking are contaminated with coliform and needed treatment. It further asserted that 31 percent of illnesses monitored during a five-year period were water-related diseases. In another study on demand and supply of water in Metro Manila, David and Inocencio (1996) indicated that 30 percent of the population was not reached by any public water service.

Furthermore, it argued that the quality of water service was poor, reliability of service was inadequate and the progressive rate imposed by the service provider did not really benefit the poor. On the issue of water pricing, Largo et al. (1998) asserted that both the price of water and income of households significantly affected water demand by households in Metro Cebu. However, price had a greater impact than income on water demand. This suggested that the high price paid by the poor for water rather than their low income largely explains their low levels of water consumption. Also on water pricing in Metro Manila and Metro Cebu, David et al.

(2000) suggested, among others, the adoption of a pricing policy that covers the full economic cost of urban water including its financial cost of water production and distribution, opportunity cost of water where there are competing users and cost of externalities or negative environmental impacts. Arellano (1994) emphasized the severe strain on water resources that the growing population of Metro Manila has brought and explored options for privatization of the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage Sytem (MWSS) which served the water needs of the area. In another study on the effects of the privatization of the Metro Manila Water and Sewerage System (MWSS on the price of water, the poor and the environment David (2000) indicated that unless some adjustments were made, the water shortage problem in Metro Manila will persist even with privatization.

It also asserted that the poor will continue to pay a much higher price for water. Furthermore, the paper argued that even though the water pricing is progressive, it may end up having regressive effects as the poorer households have to rely on shared water connection or public faucets and thereby actually pay higher water prices. Institutional Review Related to Potable Water In this section, the major national laws, local and national government agencies and national strategies and programs which on potable water in the Philippines are reviewed based on PIDS-UNICEF (2009).

The section also provides a summary of the important institutional problems faced by potable water service delivery at the national level.

National laws An important law which affects local potable water service delivery in the Philippines is the 1991 Local Government Code (LGC) which devolves several public functions from the national government to the local governments. Among others, this law mandated the sharing of responsibility of providing local potable water service among local government units. Specifically, Sec. 17 of the law mandated the barangays to maintain water supply systems; the municipalities and cities to put up small water-impounding projects, artesian wells, spring development, rainwater collectors and other water supply systems; and the provinces to establish inter-municipal waterworks and related water supply systems using their own funds.

Other major national laws which are directly related to potable water in the Philippines are the following: a) RA 6234 of 1971 which abolished the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority (NAWASA) and created the Manila Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS).

The MWSS is the national agency which is responsible for providing water supply to Metro Manila; b) Presidential Decree (PD) 198 or the Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973 which established water districts and created the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) as a specialized lending institution responsible for resource, technical, and institutional development and financial assistance to water districts;

c) PD 424 of 1974 which created the National Water Resources Council (NWRC), which is now National Water Resources Board (NWRB), which is responsible for coordinating, planning, and integrating water resources and agencies of the national government, water resource development and management in general; d) PD 1067 of 1976 or the Water Code of the Philippines which provided the implementation framework for the constitutional provisions on water resources development and water quality management; e) RA 9275 or the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 which provided for a comprehensive water quality management and consolidated the fragmented Philippine laws on water resources management, quality control, and sanitation;

f) PD 856 (Sanitation Code of the Philippines of 1975), which codified and enforced the numerous sanitation policies of the government, including the standards for potable water supply; g) EO 123 of 2002 which strengthened the NWRB and mandated it to approve tariffs of local water districts; h) EO 279 of 2004 which instituted reforms in the financing policies for the water supply and sewerage sector and for water service providers. It also transferred the LWUA to the Office of the President and rationalized its organizational structure, among others; i) EO 387 of 2004 which transferred the LWUA from the Office of the President to the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH);