1.1 Introduction
Many people tend to assume that the most important motivator at work is pay. Yet, studies point to a different factor as the major influence over worker motivation, job design. How a job is designed has a major impact on employee motivation, job satisfaction, commitment to an organization, absenteeism, and turnover. The question of how to properly design jobs so that employees are more productive and more satisfied has also received attention from managers and researchers since the beginning of the 20th century. This chapter therefore discusses background studies relating to how job design tends to affect employee motivation and job performance and then based on the background, the research problem, objectives of the study, research questions, relevance of the study, among others are stated. Motivation is a topic that is extensively researched. Halfway the twentieth century the first important motivational theories arose, namely Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943), Herzberg’s two-factor theory (1959) and Vroom’s expectancy theory (1964).
Those researches focused on motivation in general and employee motivation more specifically.
In the past years various definitions of motivation were defined, e.g. Herzberg (1959) defined employee motivation once as performing a work related action because you want to.It is commonly agreed that employee motivation can be separated in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Staw, 1976).
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Staw argues that one of the first attempts to make that distinction was in Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (1959).
However, the discussion about intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation is more from latter years (e.g. Amabile, 1993 and Deci & Ryan, 2000).
Especially important is the discussion about how intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can contribute to Employees’ performances (Ramlall, 2008).
The relationship between employee motivation and job performance has been studied in the past (Vroom, 1964).
But high correlations between the two were not established. However, later Research concluded that employee motivation and job performance are indeed positively correlated (Petty et al., 1984).
This relationship is studied in this research and the aim is to provide managers useful information on how employees’ performances can be increased by motivating them intrinsically and/or extrinsically.
With such a rapid moving economy and lots of financial institutions springing up, a shortage of qualified workers and plentiful business opportunities, the topic of motivating employees in the financial industry has become extremely important to the employer, as motivation has a great impact on the way employees perform in the organization. If employees do not enjoy their work .it will affect the success of the organization goals. Motivation as an internal drive to satisfy unsatisfied needs, can direct individual’s behaviors to satisfy those needs thus the employers must understand what employees need and how to achieve or satisfy those needs. For this to work effectively employers should be able to know what motivate employees with the context of the role they perform. Different people are motivated by different factors because individuals differ in the level of their needs. Some employees require a more interesting and challenging jobs, some may want a better condition of service.
These days money has become less of a motivator. The employers request is more than just a good wages but they require flexibility and benefits to bring their colleagues as well as opportunities for self enhancement. It is now the responsibility to involve employees in the business and let them know that the employer appreciates their ideas and suggestions. When employers know the right thing to do for employees it will help the financial sector to move on and succeed and help attract and retain employees. Various definitions have been given on motivation and some are: Motivation internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be continually interested and committed to a job, role or subject, or to make an effort to attain a goal. Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors such as the intensity of desire or need, incentive or reward value of the goal, and expectations of the individual and of his or her peers.
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... of motivation, as there are different motivational goals to be achieved by every separate person and different factors that motivate them ... are 'self-appraisal' where individuals assess their own performance and compare it to their previous targets; there is ... relationships; the third is 'upward appraisal', where the employees subordinates complete a questionnaire which are compiled together into ...
These factors are the reasons one has for behaving a certain way. An example is a student that spends extra time studying for a test because he or she wants a better grade in the class. Motivation is a psychological feature that arouses an organism to act towards a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal-directed behaviors. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological one that compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For example, hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to eat. Motivation is the purpose or psychological cause of an action. Motivation has been shown to have roots in physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social areas. Motivation may be rooted in a basic impulse to optimize well-being, minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure. It can also originate from specific physical needs such as eating, sleeping or resting, and sex. Motivation is an inner drive to behave or act in a certain manner. “It’s the difference between waking up before dawn to pound the pavement and lazing around the house all day.” These inner conditions such as wishes, desires, goals, activate to move in a particular direction in behavior.
1.2 Problem statement
Exploring the factors of motivation in Ghana’s financial industry
1.3 Research Questions
1. What is motivation and how are its different forms related?
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... security Essentially, hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation factors are needed to motivate an employee to higher performance. Herzberg also further ... must give attention to both sets of job factors. Two-factor theory distinguishes between: Motivator Factors Motivator factors are based on an individual's need for ...
2. What is the importance of employee performance and how can it be measured?
4. How do the different forms of motivation influence employee performance?
5. What are the factors that affect male and female?
6. What motivate higher level of educated personnel and what motivate those at the lower level.
7. What motivate the local banks and the foreign banks?
8. What motivate the banking sector and what motivate the savings and loan institutions?
1.4 Methodology
The aim of this is to elaborate on the relationship between employee motivation and employee performance and to provide the financial institutions and managers useful information on this topic. The answers to all research questions will be based on literature research. Thus, by conducting a comprehensive review of the published work concerning the subject (Sekaran, 2003).
The results of this thesis may lead to empirical research on the relationship between employee motivation and performance in the financial industries.
1.5 Structure
The concept motivation is explained. After some basic information and definitions two older motivational theories are explained (Herzberg (1959) and Maslow’s (1943) theory).
After that the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is made. And at last, the relationship between both and their effects are clarified. The importance of employee performance will be addressed and also measuring job performance is described.The relationship between employee motivation and performance will be described. How the financial industries can motivate employees intrinsically and extrinsically. The implications of both types of motivation are clarified and the conclusion is provided together with a discussion and the managerial implications.
Chapter 2
Employee motivation
In the following chapter the concept motivation is explained. It seems that motivation can be conceived in many different ways; e.g. many researchers tried to formulate motivation but all proposed different approximations. Many research has been conducted about this subject and many theories were designed which greatly influenced and still influence organisational behaviour. For example Herzberg’s theory of motivation (1959) is still used nowadays. According to Staw (1976) Herzberg was one of the first persons who distinguished between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. And that distinction could clarify and therefore help motivating employees. In this chapter some definitions will be mentioned, together with an introduction of the theories of Maslow (1943) and Herzberg (1959).
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But more importantly a separation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is made. This separation is also helpful to clarify the relationship between employee motivation and performance.
The concept motivation
The first question that arises is: “why managers need to motivate employees?” (Herzberg, 1959).
According to Smith (1994) it is because of the survival of the company. Amiable (1993) adds to this statement by arguing that it is important that managers and organizational leaders learn to understand and deal effectively with their employee’s motivation; since motivated employees are necessary to let the financial organization be successful in the next century. She also argues that unmotivated employees are likely to expend little effort in their jobs, avoid the workplace as much as possible, exit the organization and produce low quality of work. In the case that employees are motivated; they help organizations survive in rapidly changing workplaces (Lindner, 1998).
Lindner also argues that the most complex function of managers is to motivate employees; because what motivates employees changes constantly (Bowen and Radhakrishna, 1991).
In this paragraph the different perspectives of motivation are described. The term motivation arose in the early 1880’s; before that time the term “will” was used by philosophers as well as social theorists when discussing effortful, directed and motivated human behaviour (Forgas, Williams and Laham, 2005).
According to them motivation used to be considered as: an entity that compelled one to action. Lately, various researchers proposed different definitions of motivation. Motivation has been defined as: the psychological process “motivation becomes the degree to which an individual wants and chooses to engage in certain specified behaviours” .
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... internal job satisfaction, a more brief effect on extrinsic job satisfaction, and no effect on work motivation, job performance, and ... developed by the organization’s technology management department. Extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, and behavioral intention were all measured using ... over time. The effect of mood on employee motivation and intentions when employing a specific computer ...
It is evident that mangers need to motivate employees to obtain the desirable results for the organization. And it can be stated that there is consensus about the facts that motivation is an individual phenomenon, it is described as being intentional, it is multifaceted and that the purpose of motivational theories is to predict behaviour. It seems that Herzberg and Maslow were among the first researchers at this topic and their theories are still being used today. Since these theories clarify the concept of motivation and they are useful for the separation of motivation in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, they are explained in the next paragraph.
Herzberg and Maslow
Herzberg (1959) developed a well known motivation theory, namely the Two-Factor Theory; he distinguishes in his theory between motivators and hygiene factors. Important is that factors are either motivators or hygiene factors, but never both. Motivators are intrinsic motivational factors such as challenging work, recognition and responsibility. And hygiene factors are extrinsic motivational factors such as status, job security and salary (intrinsic and extrinsic factors are further described in the next paragraph).
Motivating factors can, when present, lead to satisfaction and hygiene factors can, when not present, lead to dissatisfaction, but the two factors cannot be treated as opposites from each other. Herzberg defines motivation in the workplace as: performing a work related action because you want to.
Motivators (leading to satisfaction) Hygiene (leading to dissatisfaction) Achievement Company policy Recognition Company policy Supervision Work itself Relationship with boss Responsibility Work conditions Advancement Salary Growth Relationship with peers Security Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory conditions upon which these basic satisfactions rest and by certain more intellectual desires” (Maslow, 1943).
When the first, physiological, need is satisfied the next “higher-order need” has to be satisfied. Maslow distinguishes between lower- and higher-order needs; the lower-order needs are physiological, safety and love and the higher-order needs are the last two. Lower-order needs have to be satisfied in order to pursue higher-level motivators along the lines of self-fulfilment (Maslow, 1943).
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Case Study in Organizational Behavior, Employee Motivation (1) Nowadays, it is practically impossible to guarantee commercial institution staying competitive, on the part of those who are responsible for designing employment policies, unless they understand how to motivate workers. Long gone are the times when good salary alone served as the best incentive, when it would come to increasing ...
However, the five needs differ in type of motivation, e.g.: self-actualization is intrinsic growth of what is already in the organism, or more accurately of what is the organism itself (Maslow, 1970).
Maslow (1943) argues that self-actualisation is absolutely not something extrinsic that an organism needs for health, such as e.g. “a tree needs water”.
Hereby, Maslow (1943) refers to the lower order needs as being more extrinsic and the higher order needs more intrinsic. Below, in figure 2.2, a chart of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is presented. Figure 2.2; Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs B. Keijzers; Employee motivation related to employee performance in the organisation In fact, Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman (1959) redefined Maslow’s (1943) Hierarchy of needs into their two categories named: hygienes and motivators. This is one of the first attempts to make up the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Staw, 1976).
And they emphasized that satisfaction and dissatisfaction cannot be treated as opposites from each other (Salancik and Pfeffer, 1977).
It can even be stated, according to Furnham, Forde and Ferrari 1998) that the motivator needs of Herzberg are very similar to the higher-order needs in Maslow’s Theory of Needs. It can be stated that Herzberg’s (1959) Two-Factor Theory and Maslow’s (1943) Hierarchy of Needs are two related theories. And it seems that these two theories form the basis for later motivational theories, since they make a very clear distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are explained in the next paragraph.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
As described earlier, motivation can be separated in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Amabile (1993) explains this as follows:
• Individuals are intrinsically motivated when they seek enjoyment, interest, satisfaction of curiosity, self-expression, or personal challenge in the work.
• Individuals are extrinsically motivated when they engage in the work in order to obtain some goal that is apart from the work itself.
The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is evident, however researchers argue that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation also have an effect on each other. Deci (1972) claims that in some cases extrinsic motivators can decrease intrinsic motivation. He argues that if money is administered contingently, it decreases intrinsic motivation. But this event will not occur if the money is non-contingently distributed. Amabile (1993) reacts to this discussion by stating that although extrinsic motivation can work in opposition to intrinsic motivation, it can also have a reinforcing effect: “once the scaffolding of extrinsic engaging nature of the task and encouragement of self-set goals and deadlines (Story et al., 2009).
Hackman and Oldham (1976) even argue that people have individual differences in response to the same work; they differentiate between employees high and low in growth need strength. People high in growth need strength are most likely to be motivated by jobs with high skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. And people low in strength are relatively insensitive for these factors according to them. This statement is supported by Furnham et al. (1998); they argue that introverts are more extrinsically motivated and extraverts more intrinsically motivated. However, it not only seems that persons are differently motivated but intrinsic and extrinsic motivation also have effect on each other.
2.3.2 The relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is evident, however researchers argue that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation also have an effect on each other. Deci (1972) claims that in some cases extrinsic motivators can decrease intrinsic motivation. He argues that if money is administered contingently, it decreases intrinsic motivation. But this event will not occur if the money is non-contingently distributed. Amabile (1993) reacts to this discussion by stating that although extrinsic motivation can work in opposition to intrinsic motivation, it can also have a reinforcing effect: “once the scaffolding of extrinsic motivation is taken care of, intrinsic motivation can lead to high levels of satisfaction and performance”. She also states in her research that both intrinsic and extrinsic values can motivate employees to do their work, however intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can have very different effects on employees. In conclusion can be stated that employees can be in trinsically and/or extrinsically motivated, to perform a certain task (Amabile, 1993).
And that extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can reinforce each other, but in some cases extrinsic motivators can also decrease intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1972).
Furthermore, researchers argue that not all people are equally motivated; some employees are more intrinsically and others more extrinsically motivated (Furnham et al., 1998).
Chapter 3:
Employee performance
Performances can be separated into organizational and employee performance. Employee performance is also known as job performance. However, it seems that job performance is mostly subjectively measured in organizations and it will appear that there are few alternative options. In this chapter, at first the distinction between organizational and job performance is made. After that the concept job performance is highlighted, together with measuring it and its implications.
Performance in organizations
Performance in organisations can be separated in organisational performance and job performance (Otley, 1999).
According to Otley, the performance of organisations is dependent upon the performance of employees (job performance) and other factors such as the environment of the organization. The distinction between organisational and job performance is evident; an organization that is performing well is one that is successfully attaining its objectives, in other words: one that is effectively implementing an appropriate strategy (Otley, 1999) and job performance is the single result of an employee’s work (Hunter, 1986).
Since the aim of this research is to provide a link between motivating employees and their performance, organisational performance lies outside the scope of this research and only job performance is addressed.
Job performance
A good employee performance is necessary for the organisation, since an organization’s success is dependent upon the employee’s creativity, innovation and commitment (Ramlall, 2008).
Good job performances and productivity growth are also important in stabilizing our economy; by means of improved living standards, higher wages, an increase in goods available for consumption, etc (Griffin et al., 1981).
Griffin et al. also argue that therefore research of individual employee performance is important to society in general. Employee production and employee job performance seems to be related; e.g. in the U.S. Performance is in some cases measured as the number and value of goods produced. However, in general productivity tends to be associated with production-oriented terms (e.g. profit and turnover) and performance is linked to efficiency or perception-oriented terms (e.g. supervisory ratings and goal accomplishments) (Pincus, 1986).
According to Hunter and Hunter (1984) crucial in a high job performance is the ability of the employee himself. The employee must be able to deliver good results and have a high productivity. Hunter and Hunter (1984) also argue that this is something the organisation can know at forehand; they can select employees with the required abilities or they can recruit those employees themselves. Of course the latter is more time consuming, but can obtain better results in the end (Hunter, 1986).
However, job performance is more than the ability of the employee alone. Herzberg (1959) and Lindner (1998) refer to the managerial side of performance. According to Herzberg (1959) performance is: let an employee do what I want him to do.This implies that the organisation’s hierarchy and task distribution are also critical for a good employee performance. Lindner (1998) adds to this statement by arguing that employee performance can be perceived as “obtaining external funds”.
According to Vroom (1964) an employee’s performance is based on individual factors, namely: personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. Many researchers agree that job performance is divided in those five factors (e.g. Hunter & Hunter, 1984).
Some researchers even argue that a person’s personality has a more specific role in job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991).
However, according to various researchers, it is not what performance exactly means, but how it is composed and how it is measured (Furnham, Forde & Ferrari, 1998; Barrick & Mount, 1991).
Vroom’s (1964), Hunter & Hunter’s (1984), Hunter’s (1986), etc. results are evident. Namely, Job performance can be divided in personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. Some researchers even argue that personality has a more specific role in job performance. However, according to Bishop (1989) and others, job performance contains a problem; namely the measurement of performance.
Measuring job performance
According to Kostiuk and Follmann (1989) in most organisations performance is measured by supervisory ratings, however these data are not very useful since they are highly subjective. Bishop (1989) adds to this that in most
jobs an objective measure of productivity does not exist. Bishop (1989) also states that the consistency of worker performance is greatest when conditions of work are stable, but in practice work conditions never are stable. This makes it even harder to measure performances objectively. According to Perry and Porter (1982), the performance of many employees probably will be measured despite the lack of availability of generally accepted criteria. Perry and Porter (1982) and Bishop (1989) both argue the problem of objective measuring, however according to Bishop (1989) the problem even increases because most employers believe they can rate the productivity of their employees, and that it is done in an inefficient manner.
However, Bishop (1989) states, it is not impossible, but only costly to obtain objective information about a worker’s effort and productivity. It is stated before that some researchers argue that a person’s personality plays a more specific role in job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991).
However, the effect personal characteristics and education have onperformance is difficult to interpret, since those estimates are imprecise and the models who claimed that can interpret them are rejected as invalid (Kostiuk & Follmann, 1989).
However, Kostiuk and Follmann do argue that personality differences seem to be important in the relationship with performance. It can be stated that job performance contains a problem; the measurement of it. Job performances are commonly measured by supervisory ratings and those ratings are not perceived as objective. However, it seems that there are alternative options to measure job performance; these are addresses in the next paragraph. Options for measuring job performance objectively Breaugh (1981) states in his research that there are four different performance dimensions on which employees are measured, named: quality, quantity, dependability and job knowledge.
This theory combined with Vroom’s (1964) theory results in the work of Hunter (1986).
He designed the route in which most employers can rate their employee’s productivity. His theory However, despite the higher objectivity in the theory of Hunter (1986) this type of measuring job performance is still based on supervisor ratings. And supervisory ratings are commonly rejected as being objective (Bishop, 1989).
Griffin et al. (1981) concluded in their literature review that there are few true objective options to measure job performance; one alternative is used in the research of Umstot, Bell, & Mitchell, in 1976.
Namely; take job performance as “the average number of units produced per hour for one day; adjusted for set-up and called productivity”. Griffin et al. (1981) argue that there are some other options to measure job performance employee motivation related to employee performance in the organisation objectively, but they have more to do with productivity; e.g. job performance taken as “number of units produced divided by total time worked (i.e., items per minute)”. It seems that performance in organisations is commonly measured subjectively, but there exist few alternatives for objective ways. However, the scope of this thesis is not on designing an objective measurement for job performance. Therefore, in this thesis, the measurement of job performance is taken as an entity.
Chapter 4:
Employee motivation and performance
It is already argued that managers need to motivate employees to perform well in the firm, since the organisation’s success is dependent upon them (Ramlall, 2008).
However, it is only later research that succeeded in establishing a positive correlation between employee motivation and job performance. In this chapter, at first the relationship between employee motivation and performance will be explained. After that, it will be described how employees can be intrinsically and/or extrinsically motivated to perform well. It will appear that there are several options for intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, but extrinsic factors alone will not lead to an increase in employee motivation. The relationship between employee motivation and job performance.The viewpoint that motivation causes performance comes from human relations theory (Filley et al., 1976).
The relationship between employee motivation and job performance has been studied for a long period. However, earlier research could not succeed in establishing a direct relationship between the two (Vroom, 1964).
Yet it seems that that the factors do influence each other. Petty et al. (1984) reviewed the 15 studies Vroom (1964) used in his research and added another 20 more recent studies; they concluded that employee motivation and performance are indeed related. The results of their research indicate that the relationship between individual, overall job satisfaction and individual job performance is more consistent than reported in previous researches (e.g. Vroom, 1964).
And Hackman and Oldham (1976) argue that when employee satisfaction is added, a circular relationship is formed with performance, satisfaction and motivation. The term satisfaction is also used by Herzberg (1959); he argues that when intrinsic factors (motivators) are present at the job, satisfaction is likely to occur as well as an increase in employee motivation.
Amabile (1993) states that work performances are dependent upon the individual’s level of motivation; the individual’s level of motivation can be intrinsically and/or extrinsically based. It is also argued that certain job characteristics are necessary in establishing the relationship between employee motivation and performance (e.g. Brass, 1981; Hackman & Oldham, 1976; etc.).
Brass (1981) argues that when certain job characteristics are present in an organisation, employees are better motivated and an increase in performance is noticeable. Job characteristics refer to specific attributes or dimensions that can be used to describe different tasks (Griffin et al., 1981).
Hackman and Oldham (1976) defined five job characteristics, which are based on the Two-Factor Theory from Herzberg (1959).
Those characteristics are: skill variety, task identity, B. Keijzers; Employee motivation related to employee performance in the organisation task significance, autonomy and feedback. show high work motivation, satisfaction and performance (Brass, 1981).
Conclusion
At first it can be concluded that it is indeed possible to motivate employees to perform well for an organisation and that is a critical task for mangers. It seems that there exists a self-reinforcing circular relationship between the performance, satisfaction and motivation of an employee; an employee achieves a high performance, therefore internal satisfaction arises and the employee is motivated to perform well in the future. It is stated that a high performance can be reached when the organisation provides certain job characteristics. Secondly, it is stated that employees can be both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated to perform well. Most jobs are even both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated (Amabile, 1993).
It can also be concluded that intrinsic factors can contribute in a greater extent to employee motivation than extrinsic factors. Some researchers even argue that an increase in extrinsic factors solely does not lead to an increase in performance.
Research proved that to intrinsically motivate employees, the organisation needs to score high on five job characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. And to extrinsically motivate employees, the organisation needs to score high on salary, commitment to supervisors and peers and job security. These job characteristics together with the ability of the employee provide the opportunity for a high performance, which is the start of the self-reinforcing circle (Hackman & Oldham, 1976).
It is important that managers provide all job characteristics, since that will lead to the highest employee performance. However, it must be argued that this relationship is not infinite; it could be that the employee does not longer derive satisfaction from his performance or that one of the three psychological stages is no longer present. Therefore organisations must make sure that performances can be continuously improved. At last, it can be argued that there are numerous other ways to increase the performance of employees in organisations (e.g. diversity, leadership, etc.), thus management should not focus on motivation solely. But it can be concluded that particularly intrinsic factors can greatly contribute in increasing employee productivity.
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